Global Financial Crisis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Global Financial Crisis - Research Paper Example (Avgouleas, 2008). In addition other major investment banks such as Merrill Lynch, Citigroup, UBS, and JPMorgan have all announced negative earnings in their last financial reports as well as plans to lay off a significant number of workers. This paper carries out a comparative review of how the credit crunch affected Northern Rock in the UK and other major United Kingdom based bank. These other banks include, the Royal Bank of Scotland, Halifax Bank of Scotland and Bradford and Bingley. The first part of the paper provides an overview of the current financial crisis stressing on what caused the crisis. The second part looks at the different business models of these institutions, their risk management strategies, control procedures put in place following the crisis. Section 3 looks at the regulatory environment of both banks; the liquidity position, debt to equity ratio and the financial positions of the company. The last section provides conclusion and recommendation. Sub-prime loans are loans offered to borrowers with no prior track record of good credit history. (Shaffer and Hoover, 2007). Due to the risk inherent in the loans, they are often issued at very high interest rates so as to compensate for the extra risk that they carry. (Shaffer and Hoover, 2007). A sub-prime crises or credit crunch is said to exist when a significant number of sub-prime loans have been issued to unscrupulous borrowers. (Shaffer and Hoover, 2007). These crises pose difficulties to both financial institutions and the borrowers. The outbreak of the recent sub-prime crises came after warning signals of write-downs in the value of mortgages late last year. (Schumer and Maloney, 2008). House prices in the U.S witnessed an unusual growth between 1997 and 2005. For example, prices increased by approximately 85% during this period. The period 2001 and 2005 witnessed the highest rates of appreciation. (Schumer and Maloney, 2007). Sub-prime delinquencies and foreclosures were therefore mitigated by house price appreciations during these years. This is so because borrowers facing difficulties to make regular mortgage payments could depend on the appreciation of the value of their property to solve their financial problems by refinancing the mortgage and withdrawing cash from the increased equity in the house thereby sustaining the new mortgage for a while. However, house prices began to decline in 2006, and as at October 2007, prices were down by approximately

The Magna Carta and the Constitution Essay Example for Free

The Magna Carta and the Constitution Essay Magna Cartas original version which states that the king should not ignore or violate the traditions, customs or laws and could not take any arbitrary actions against his subjects. l Magna Carta provides for rule of law, ensures fairness tOf3 0T laws, contalns commitment to Oue process 0T law ana gives respect Tor economlc rights. While these rights were the privileges given to barons in England by way of declarations in Magna Carta, the founders of the U. S. drew inspiration from Magna Carta and made these rights applicable to all the citizens of America and became part of the Bill of Rights. Magna Carta is therefore a source for the U. S. Constitution. The Bill of Rights 1791; which representing 10 amendments as part of the 1st amendment to the U. S. Constitutions. Clause 39 of Magna Carta provides that no freeman shall be punished except by lawful Judgment by his peers or by the laws of the land. This was to prevent the King to deliver sentences without the authority of law. The U. S. Constitution provides for rule of law by which no person is above the law. In this context both, Magna Carta and the U. S. Constitution are similar. Whereas the Magna Carta was issued by the Monarch, the U. S. Constitution was given by Americans unto themselves. The 14th Amendment to the U. S. Constitution includes the stipulation of due process, this provides for fair trial before depriving any person of his life, liberty or property. The trial is what is meant by due process. Again it must be a fair trial as part of the due process. In The Magna Carta, the due process of law is known by law of the land and legal Judgment of peers. In order to constitute due process, there should be a right to fair and public trial, right to be present at the trial, presence of an impartial Jury, right to be heard as part of ones own defense. Besides, the laws must be in written form, taxes must be for only public purpose, and property can be taken only for public purpose with due compensation. In this way The Magna Carta pales in comparison due to not being as descriptive as the U. S. Constitution for the meaning of due process. Both Magna Carta and the U. S. Constitution require that laws shall be fair and discriminatory. Thus, Magna Carta and the U. S. Constitution share many things in common. Magna Carta of 121 5 was a bold initiative of the then King, without which the U. S. Constitution would have taken still longer time to be what it is today.

Johnny Rocket’s invades Belgium :: essays research papers

Johnny Rocket’s invades Belgium! Restaurants continue to play a significant role in the Belgian franchise market, and their presence is increasing rapidly, with the fast food franchising market growing at an annual rate of approximately 12%. American fast-food franchising concepts, such as standardized restaurant chains that offer a limited but popular range of dishes served in packaging for on-the-spot consumption has been widely adopted. We plan to bring Johnny Rocket’s to Belgium with a twist of catering to business people, by catering lunches. Every Johnny Rockets restaurant boasts great-tasting food from a menu of All-American favorites including juicy hamburgers, hand-dipped shakes and malts and freshly-baked apple pie. Guests also enjoy an All-American diner look and feel, servers who know the secret behind getting ketchup out of the bottle, tabletop jukeboxes that belt out tunes for a nickel and authentic dà ©cor. Johnny Rockets is the place where every Guest can enjoy All-American favorites served with a smile! OUR GUEST PROMISE: †¢ Say "hello" and "goodbye" to everyone passing through our doors. †¢ Serve the freshest, highest quality simple All-American fare. †¢ Cheerfully serve guests promptly in a sparkling clean store. †¢ Always dance on the half hour, twirl straws and serve ketchup with a smile. †¢ Handle guest needs right here and now. The hamburger market is the strongest of all franchised food chains. In this market, McDonald’s, the second largest hamburger chain, hopes to expand from its current 64 restaurants to well over 100 in the next two to four years. Pizza Hut controls twenty percent of the pizza restaurant market. Chi Chi’s and Dominos are also present in the Belgian market, but they have experienced much difficulty in successfully penetrating it due to the high cost of labor in Belgium. Belgium has one of the highest percentages of inbound franchises as a proportion of franchise systems in the European Union, which helps contribute to the strong competition present in the fast-food sector. The market leader is the GIB group, Belgium's largest retailer, which are the owner and franchiser of the Quick Hamburger Restaurant chain, Lunch Garden and Crock’In Sandwich restaurants. The Quick chain, with one hundred-five outlets, is the sales leader in the hamburger market. GIB originally owned the Pizza Hut master franchise. It is now owned and operated by the Tricon group of Belgium. The decision to enter into a direct foreign investment was made on the basis that Johnny Rockets wanted to maintain controlling interest over operations, avoid transport costs and trade restrictions.

Childhood Essay -- Literary Analysis, Blake and Wordsworth

At its fundamental level, adulthood is simply the end of childhood, and the two stages are, by all accounts, drastically different. In the major works of poetry by William Blake and William Wordsworth, the dynamic between these two phases of life is analyzed and articulated. In both Blake’s Songs of Innocence and of Experience and many of Wordsworth’s works, childhood is portrayed as a superior state of mental capacity and freedom. The two poets echo one another in asserting that the individual’s progression into adulthood diminishes this childhood voice. In essence, both poets demonstrate an adoration for the vision possessed by a child, and an aversion to the mental state of adulthood. Although both Blake and Wordsworth show childhood as a state of greater innocence and spiritual vision, their view of its relationship with adulthood differs - Blake believes that childhood is crushed by adulthood, whereas Wordsworth sees childhood living on within the adult. In the William Blake’s Songs of Innocence and of Experience, the vision of children and adults are placed in opposition of one another. Blake portrays childhood as a time of optimism and positivity, of heightened connection with the natural world, and where joy is the overpowering emotion. This joyful nature is shown in Infant Joy, where the speaker, a newborn baby, states â€Å"’I happy am,/ Joy is my name.’† (Line 4-5) The speaker in this poem is portrayed as being immediately joyful, which represents Blake’s larger view of childhood as a state of joy that is untouched by humanity, and is untarnished by the experience of the real world. In contrast, Blake’s portrayal of adulthood is one of negativity and pessimism. Blake’s child saw the most cheerful aspects of the natural wo... ...lake and Wordsworth see the relationship between childhood and adulthood as one of difference in vision and state of mind. The two poets mirror each other in this assertion, but differ elsewhere. While Blake sees this dichotomy as one of conflict, Wordsworth feels that the two mindsets are able to coexist within the individual. The relationship between children and adults is one that is by no means new to human life. The two epochs of human existence are drastically different in their mindsets and their views of the world. In the poetry of William Blake and William Wordsworth, this difference between children and adults and their respective states of mind is articulated and developed. As a person ages, they move undeniably from childhood to adulthood, and their mentality moves with them. On the backs of Blake and Wordsworth, the reader is taken along this journey.

Handicaps and Special Needs Essay

Handicaps and Special Needs people are those who are not considered â€Å"normal† because of their physical (blindness), mental (mental retardation), motor (unable to walk properly) or Auditory Perception Disability (â€Å"difficulty distinguishing subtle differences in shapes, reversing letters like â€Å"d† and â€Å"b† or â€Å"p and â€Å"q†, or confusing â€Å"E† and â€Å"3. â€Å"). Disability can be mild or severe. Because of their disabilities they may be unable to perform tasks, even simple routine ones like eating, walking or taking a bath without assistance from others. Assistance may be in the form of help extended like when a sibling will help a blind brother reach certain destination by holding his hand or in the form of modification to accommodate their disability like schools for mentally retarded children were specially designed in a manner that mentally impaired person are able to grasp certain lessons. Disabilities may be acquired at birth or certain period of life when they meet accidents or developed illness. This essay will discuss on three examples of handicapped and special needs. One example of handicap as cited above is blindness (physical disability). Blindness of course means that a person is unable to see. It is much easier to guide and assists a person who is not blind from birth. By then he already knows a lot of things, he knew the color red or how a tree looks or he can distinguish a cow from a lion without the necessity of touching. He can easily roam around the house or other familiar places without any assistance. For a blind person at birth, on the other hand, it may be difficult at first because they had never seen the things around them so they do not have any mental picture. For them, touching, listening and tasting are essential for learning (â€Å"Blindness† 1995). He never knew what circle is before so his hands need to touch a circle. In the case of Helen Keller, the famous blind woman, Anne Sullivan taught her what water was by letting water run down to her hands. To help them learn alphabet, Braille was invented wherein the letters were represented in the form of dots. With patience and perseverance however, a blind person, even those born blind, are able to live and enjoy a normal life with minimum assistance from others. An example of people with special needs is the autistic (learning disability). Medical experts classify Autism as a developmental disorder caused by the defective functioning of the brain. This disorder is characterized by failure to interact socially (do not play with other kids), failure in the use of language (inability to learn to talk) and engaging in repetitive and obsessive behaviors (playing with a certain toy for hours or constant twirling and turning). Autistic persons have limited interests and activities and they usually unable to understand emotional signals like anger or sadness and they do not respond when their names are called. If parents are observant they can detect that their child is autistic even as young as 18 months. Their early warning signs are their inability to make eye contact or respond to cooing appropriately like most babies do. Other signs that a child is autistic are: repetition of certain words or phrases when they are frightened or disturbed, pulling of their hair to mean that they are hurt or withdrawal from interaction with others, even with parents; they prefer to be alone and to â€Å"create their own world†, whatever that may be (â€Å"Pervasive† 2007). Parents of these children needs to be educated how to respond properly to this children and therapy and speech instructions are often recommended for an autistic person. Specialized schools are also available for them. A third example of handicapped is motor disability due to inability to use certain muscle groups resulting to difficulty in walking, running or climbing (motor disability). This may be a mild from of disability and wherein muscle therapy or medication is needed to cure the problem (An Introduction† p. 2). The aim of any normal person is to make living and working accessible for these types of people so that they also will be afforded opportunities for normal living. References â€Å"An Introduction to Special Needs†(2007). Retrieved October 1, 2007 from http://serch. cofc. edu/special/IntroductionToSpecialNeeds. pdf â€Å"Blindness†(1995). Kids Health. Retrieved October 1, 2007 from http://www. kidshealth. org/kid/health_problems/sight/visual_impaired. html â€Å"Pervasive Developmental Disorder†(2007). National Institute of Neurological Disorder and Stroke. Retrieved October 1,2007 from http://www. ninds. nih. gov/disorders/pdd/pdd. htm#Is_there_any_treatment

What is an asset Essays - Asset, Financial Ratios, Free Essays

What is an asset Essays - Asset, Financial Ratios, Free Essays oWhat is an asset? What is a liability? What is the difference between them? Can an organization operate without current liabilities? Explain your answer. An asset is an item that adds value to a company or an individual. A liability is the opposite of an asset and is something that a company or individual is obligated to contribute assets to resolve. The most common example of a liability is a loan. The main difference between assets and liabilities is that assets add value and liabilities take away value. It is possible for a company to operate without any liabilities but it is unlikely. Most of the time companies invest their cash flow from their assets back into the company to either expand or develop some other kind of technology that will later benefit the company in the future. What are current assets? What are current liabilities? How do you calculate the Current Ratio? For example, what is the current ratio for Wal-Mart for the most recent quarter? http://finance.yahoo.com/q/bs?s=WMT Current Assets are assets such as cash and other assets that the company are expected to convert to cash within a year from the date shown in a companys balance sheet. Accounts receivable, inventory, and prepaid expenses are considered current assets. Current liabilities are a companys debts or obligations that are due within the year from the date shown in a companys balance sheet. The current ratio is a liquidity ratio calculated as current assets divided by the current liabilities. This determines whether a company has the ability to pay off its current liabilities within that year. For Wal-Mart its current ratio made an improvement from 2013 to 2014 and from 2014 to 2015. For the actual amount in July 2015 the total current ratio would be 58132000/65262000 which is 1.12. This means that the current liabilities are greater than the current assets for the month of July of this year. oClass, What is an aggressive financing strategy? What are components of aggressive finance strategies? What is the difference between the aggressive and conservative financing models? Under what circumstances would you use either model? I like to watch the show Income Properties on HGTV. For those of you not familiar with the show, a couple has a part of their house they want to convert to an apartment that they will rent out to tenants. The host of the show presents them with two options. For example, if they invest $30,000 in Option 1, they will be able to charge $800 in rent. However, if they invest $40,000 in Option 2 (nicer apartment), they will be able to charge $1,000 in rent. I often see homeowners discussing if they have the additional $10,000. But think this is the wrong way to make the decision. What variables should they be considering when choosing? What is zero working capital? How would you define zero working capital? Net working capital is the amount by which a firms current assets exceed its current liabilities (Gitman, 2015). Zero working capital would be zero difference by which the firms current assets exceeds its current liabilities. When would this methodology be used? Zero working capital methodology would be used when a firm elects to reinvest its working capital rather than retaining it. Financial institutions prefer high levels of working capital, whereas firms prefer low levels. Would this model be applicable to all organizations? Explain. No, zero working capital methodology is not applicable to all organizations. Some firms may need excess cash or inventories to fulfill obligations, therefore reserving working capital. The zero working capital methodology applies best to demand based firms. A demand based firm fills customer orders, manufactures product, etc. as needed. Reference Gitman, L. (2015). Principles of Managerial Finance (14th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson, Addison Wesley. What is their Net Working Capital? Remember, Net Working Capital is calculated as Current Assets - Current Liabilities. Net Working Capital is the current assets minus the current liabilities of a company. It is used to measure the short-term liquidity of a business and can also be used to obtain a general idea or estimate of the ability of company management to utilize assets in an effective manner. The current assets are calculated by adding up cash and cash equivalents, marketable investments, trade

Dbms Implentation Essays

Dbms Implentation Essays Dbms Implentation Essay Dbms Implentation Essay Learning Team Assignment: DBMS Implementation Plan Resource: Virtual Organization for Huffman Trucking Write a 10-12 page plan for the implementation of an enterprise DBMS for Huffman Trucking. Assume that the Microsoft ® Access Fleet Truck Maintenance Database listed on the Huffman Trucking intranet site has been implemented. Assume other departments within Huffman Trucking have stand-alone databases, at least one of which uses database software other than Microsoft ® Access. Identify all of your assumptions. Your plan should discuss the details and features of the DBMS that would be implemented, problems that would be addressed by the system implementation, and issues that might be incurred during the system’s implementation. Introduction With increasingly more data requiring to be saved, arranged, and accessed in an organization, the requirement to apply and use a good Database Management System (DBMS) has become essential. DBMS systems vary from an easy system for example Microsoft ® Access to more complicated systems for example Structured Query Language (SQL) and Oracle. The aim of this analysis is to look into the existing procedures being utilized in Huffman Trucking since they relate with data storing, organization, and accessibility and then to suggest what DBMS system might meet the requirements of the organization. This evaluation will start looking at the existing DBMS system being used by Huffman Trucking and determine the weaknesses and strengths of the existing process(s). After the research into the existing system is finished, our team will look at different DBMS systems to determine which system would be much better suited to Huffman Trucking. As soon as the DBMS system is determined, our team will show the details and characteristics of the suggested DBMS system which Huffman Trucking must look into to buy and implement. Finally, our team will suggest an agenda for applying the suggested DBMS system, determine which issues in the existing Huffman Trucking might be fixed by using the system, and determine problems which may be incurred during the system’s execution. Requests, Analysis, and Responses Company’s Request When the organization was small, having the ability to monitor everything from truck repair and company staff was relatively simple but; since the company has expanded a requirement for a better system has developed. Huffman Trucking has turned to our company to examine their existing database procedures, determine the weaknesses and strengths of their existing database system, and suggest both an improved database system as well as methods the system may be applied in the organization. Current Analysis for Huffman Trucking About the Company: Huffman Trucking was established by K. Huffman in 1936, with a one semi-tractor trailer operation which has expanded to an operation which presently has more than eight hundred road tractors, more than 2,100 trailers, and more than 260 â€Å"roll-on/roll-off† units utilized to shift cargo off and on ships to their tractors. Presently the Company Office and Service Center is situated in Cleveland, OH, with other facilities in Los Angeles, CA, St. Louis, MO, as well as Bayonne, NJ. The organization employs more than 925 drivers as well as 425 support staff. The organization forecasts that they will carry on growing therefore requiring additional vehicles, drivers as well as staff. Analysis of Current Database Processes Huffman Trucking presently uses a number of different database systems to incorporate Microsoft ® Access, MySQL, as well as Microsoft ® Excel files. Microsoft ® Access is used by the maintenance division to save, arrange, and access 2 different maintenance databases to incorporate: Entities and Attributes for Drivers Log and the Entities and Attributes for Fleet Truck Maintenance. MySQL is presently used by the Human Resource division to save, arrange and get access to information on all associates in the organization. Though not a database management system, several individual divisions maintain data information saved and arranged on Microsoft ® Excel spreadsheets (Apollo Group, 2004). Weaknesses of Current Database Processes Contrary to the strengths, there are several weak points regarding the existing database procedures. Firstly, theres no continuity or uniformity of data from all divisions and places in the organization. This may lead to data mistakes, duplicate data in the various systems used, and the failure to develop helpful information which can help Huffman Trucking make better company decisions. A lot of data is being saved and arranged on Excel spreadsheets, that can be lost if the computer system the data is saved might fail. These Excel spreadsheets also can just be accessed by some associates in the organization and might not be for other divisions or associates. Using MySQL and Microsoft ® Access assists however all the data being saved in the databases arent shared with most of the organization. Response to Company’s Request After assessing the existing database procedures used by Huffman Trucking, our company agrees with Huffman Trucking’s request to buy and apply a much better database system for the entire organization; this latest system would substitute their Microsoft ® Access, MySQL, and Microsoft ® Excel spreadsheets. Recommended DBMS It is suggested for Huffman Trucking to utilize a company database management system (DBMS). For the reason that; Huffman Trucking needs a DBMS that would help various functions because big amount of data is saved on regular basis and that too at various places. A relational database system for example the Oracle 10g is a strongly recommended database for Huffman Trucking. Oracle 10g assigns an exclusive ID to each transaction or data that makes it simpler to save the data and also serves the objective of easily finding the data. Additionally, exclusive ID which is linked to the data remains same and cant be modified. This saves on the expense of data redundancy whereby, ame data might be saved on many places by various users. Additionally, any data that has to be upgraded may be upgraded quickly and the upgraded file automatically replaces the last file. This will decrease the worry to have an upgraded file with some latest naming convention to ensure that during retrieval, the user recalls which one was the latest version. Though Oracle 10g DBMS might be a costly option re garding the expense of getting and applying this type of DBMS, it is still a valuable investment because it may be operated from one place and can tackle large volumes of data. Another significant aspect is considering for future years. Huffman Trucking might be thinking about applying an ERP in future and this DBMS could be an ideal selection because most ERP systems, for example SAP and Oracle R12, are based on Oracle Databases and it will be simpler for Huffman Trucking to blend Oracle 10g with Oracle R12 or SAP. Additionally, the skilled assets will be used and will be useful during the use of Oracle R12 or SAP. Additionally, Oracle 10g is a dependable database from a famous system application provider, Oracle. Consequently, there will be less data mistakes because of fault due to undesirable Database and if there come up a mistake, the metalink support supplied by Oracle is extremely effective to timely fix the problems about the databases. Additionally, the truth that databases are constantly upgraded by patches and upgrade files supplied by Oracle itself, will make sure that data safety stays unchanged and mistakes are eliminated prior to they are actually experienced by the organization. After evaluating all the benefits linked with Oracle 10g, it may be determined that all the deficiencies in the existing DBMS at Huffman Trucking, shall be eliminated. There might be a cost factor which may hinder the management to consider shifting towards with the deal; however the advantages easily outweigh the expenses. Implementing the DBMS Implementation Plan Huffman Trucking isnt different concerning applying a DBMS, every organization depends on a great DBMS just because it offers all the required tools in applying strategies, establishing and accomplishing business objectives. As the data of a company is their most significant asset, establishing a plan to use the DBMS is extremely important. Huffman Trucking has got offices and hubs in 4 different towns across the country; using a DBMS which would provide the company’s workers access to their data both locally as well as remotely. The plan must concentrate on traditional file processing, file duplication, formats, as well as security. This would also include determining which organizational hubs will be served directly, determining current and future applications which would be required, and significantly, which functions will be used. Determining the document needs is a vital step in that it provides a better option of DBMS supplier selection. Issues that can be solved by the Implementation Presently Huffman Trucking uses several database systems, the staffs are separately handling data, data duplication is yet another problem and the existing system is certain to security threats. As per Anjard (1994), the key reason on applying a DBMS may be described as â€Å"decrease in data redundancy, upgrading mistakes and enhanced data uniformity, greater data integrity and independence from use, assisting development of latest programs, advancement in data safety, lowering of data, storage, and retrieval expenses, and overall improve data access to users†. With this new execution, Huffman Trucking can depend on the system for data administration and data adjustment and utilizing questions to get helpful information. Data management as well as data adjustment are two main characteristics of database system. Having more than one place across the country, the latest execution brings data uniformity and data concurrency. Having a multiuser database, several Huffman’s workers (users) can access data simultaneously and data uniformity make each user sees a uniform view of a data, incorporating noticeable modifications by other users and the user. Workers wont need to save important company papers on their local machines; it can be accessed from shared servers in the network. All hubs have accessibility to data all over the Huffman’s facilities; this will enhance effectiveness and efficiency significantly. The Human Resource Division will have access to every worker record; also managers and other workers who have limited access to sensitive papers. As presently, â€Å"the compensation manager keeps Excel spreadsheet with results of job analyses, salary surveys, as well as personal compensation decisions† (Apollo Group, 2004); this information may be handled by the DBMS providing access to limited users only. This information shouldn’t be placed by a person; the organization must be capable to access information such as this to get helpful information for comparison and analytical functions. Issues that may be incurred during Implementation One main problem which most organizations encounter when implementing the latest DBMS is the expense, others vary from its complexity to size cumbersome. The expense underlying execution of DBMS comprises software and hardware, transformation of files-for example file-based to database. Huffman Trucking income report indicates the net income below twenty thousand dollars through the years 2005 and 2006; DBMS are extremely costly, an organization must do detail research prior to selecting which system to use. A few DBMS expenses might be reduced based on the characteristics as well as functions which are needed by the company. Other problems arent restricted to working in the software and hardware standards of the company and utilizing present resources to reduce cost. Time and economic limitations must be taken into consideration; the requirements of the company must be met. Employees’ capability to get accustomed to the latest system must also be considered; the system will provide a major improvement to the company but might have a damaging as well as challenging influence on the users. Database systems are complicated, a highly trained staff will assist ease the conversion procedure. Every worker who requires to makes use of the system must be skilled, or the users will rebel and the system will fail. Conclusion Discussion starts here . . .

What HeLa Cells Are and Why They Are Important

What HeLa Cells Are and Why They Are Important HeLa cells are the first immortal human cell line. The cell line grew from a sample of cervical cancer cells taken from an African-American woman named Henrietta Lacks on February 8, 1951. The lab assistant responsible for the samples named cultures based on the first two letters of a patients first and last name, thus the culture was dubbed HeLa. In 1953, Theodore Puck and Philip Marcus cloned HeLa (the first human cells to be cloned) and freely donated samples to other researchers. The cell lines initial use was in cancer research, but  HeLa cells have led to numerous medical breakthroughs and nearly 11,000 patents. Key Takeaways: HeLa Cells HeLa cells are the first immortal human cell line.The cells came from a cervical cancer sample obtained from Henrietta Lack in 1951, without her knowledge or permission.HeLa cells have led to many important scientific discoveries, yet there are disadvantages to working with them.HeLa cells have led to the examination of the ethical considerations of working with human cells. What It Means to Be Immortal Normally, human cell cultures die within a few days after a set number of cell divisions via a process called senescence. This presents a problem for researchers because experiments using normal cells cannot be repeated on identical cells (clones), nor can the same cells be used for extended study. Cell biologist George Otto Gey took one cell from Henrietta Lacks sample, allowed that cell to divide, and found the culture survived indefinitely if given nutrients and a suitable environment. The original cells continued to mutate. Now, there are many strains of HeLa, all derived from the same single cell. Researchers believe the reason HeLa cells dont suffer programmed death is because they maintain a version of the enzyme telomerase that prevents gradual shortening of the telomeres of chromosomes. Telomere shortening is implicated in aging and death. Notable Achievements Using HeLa Cells HeLa cells have been used to test the effects of radiation, cosmetics, toxins, and other chemicals on human cells. They have been instrumental in gene mapping and studying human diseases, especially cancer. However, the most significant application of HeLa cells may have been in the development of the first polio vaccine. HeLa cells were used to maintain a culture of polio virus in human cells. In 1952, Jonas Salk tested his polio vaccine on these cells and used them to mass-produce it. Disadvantages of Using HeLa Cells While the HeLa cell line has led to amazing scientific breakthroughs, the cells can also cause problems. The most significant issue with HeLa cells is how aggressively they can contaminate other cell cultures in a laboratory. Scientists dont routinely test the purity of their cell lines, so HeLa had contaminated many in vitro lines (estimated 10 to 20 percent) before the problem was identified. Much of the research conducted on contaminated cell lines had to be thrown out. Some scientists refuse to allow HeLa in their labs in order to control the risk. Another problem with HeLa is that it doesnt have a normal human karyotype (the number and appearance of chromosomes in a cell). Henrietta Lacks (and other humans) have 46 chromosomes (diploid or a set of 23 pairs), while the HeLa genome consists of 76 to 80 chromosome (hypertriploid, including 22 to 25 abnormal chromosomes). The extra chromosomes came from the infection by human papilloma virus that led to cancer. While HeLa cells resemble normal human cells in many ways, they are neither normal nor entirely human. Thus, there are limitations to their use. Issues of Consent and Privacy The birth of the new field of biotechnology introduced ethical considerations. Some modern laws and policies arose from ongoing  issues surrounding HeLa cells. As was the norm at the time, Henrietta Lacks was not informed her cancer cells were going to be used for research. Years after the HeLa line had become popular, scientists took samples from other members of the Lacks family, but they did not explain the reason for the tests. In the 1970s, the Lacks family was contacted as scientists sought to understand the reason for the aggressive nature of the cells. They finally knew about HeLa. Yet, in 2013, German scientists mapped the entire HeLa genome and made it public, without consulting the Lacks family. Informing a patient or relatives about the use of samples obtained via medical procedures was not required in 1951, nor is it required today. The 1990 Supreme Court of California case of Moore v. Regents of the University of California ruled a persons cells are not his or her property and may be commercialized. Yet, the Lacks family did reach an agreement with the National Institutes of Health (NIH) regarding access to the HeLa genome. Researchers receiving funds from the NIH must apply for access to the data. Other researchers are not restricted, so data about the Lacks genetic code is not completely private. While human tissue samples continue to be stored, specimens are now identified by an anonymous code. Scientists and legislators continue to wrangle with questions of security and privacy, as genetic markers may lead to clues about an involuntary donors identity. References and Suggested Reading Capes-Davis A, Theodosopoulos G, Atkin I, Drexler HG, Kohara A, MacLeod RA, Masters JR, Nakamura Y, Reid YA, Reddel RR, Freshney RI (2010). Check your cultures! A list of cross-contaminated or misidentified cell lines.  Int. J. Cancer.  127  (1): 1–8.Masters, John R. (2002). HeLa cells 50  years on: The good, the bad and the ugly.  Nature Reviews Cancer.  2  (4): 315–319.Scherer, William F.; Syverton, Jerome T.; Gey, George O. (1953). Studies on the Propagation in Vitro of Poliomyelitis Viruses. J Exp Med (published May 1, 1953). 97 (5): 695–710.Skloot, Rebecca (2010). The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks. New York: Crown/Random House.Turner, Timothy (2012). Development of the Polio Vaccine: A Historical Perspective of Tuskegee Universitys Role in Mass Production and Distribution of HeLa Cells.  Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved.  23  (4a): 5–10.

International business strategies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

International business strategies - Essay Example Either the author of the statement is unbelievably naive, or it is merely an attempt to be provocative with didactic intent. Take the classic example of Mark & Spencer plc, which began in 1894 as a single high street store owned by two men, selling all items said to be costing no more than a penny to the customer. Over the years it conquered the retail sector with branches in prime locations all over the UK, and in overseas territories, totalling more than 885 stores. Not only did Marks & Spencer evolve into the giant corporation which it is today by reading the changes in the environment well, and meeting the growing needs of more and more affluent consumers, it also influenced the shopping habits of its clients. The business firm is not a faceless entity; at best, it can be an icon of social and economic progress, and at worst become vanquished by its inability to read the environment, Woolworths and MFI being two recent examples of such failure. How the environment impacts on the fortunes of the business firm is nowhere more evident than in the collapse of many business enterprises including financial institutions (banks) in the current worldwide economic downturn. Even starker is the effect of continuing bad weather either in the form of floods or snow on the viability of a whole range of firms in the UK. Had the environment represented by the UK government not provided a lifeline to some of the major banks in the form of taxpayer subsidies, or buy-outs, they would not have survived. Different political ideologies at different times affect the business enterprise in different ways. The collapse of communism and the breaking down of the Berlin wall in 1989, coupled with the Internet phenomenon resulted in the abolition of legislation preventing global communication and industrialisation. Since then there has been a plethora of international mergers, acquisitions

Water Safety and Its Guidelines Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Water Safety and Its Guidelines - Essay Example According to the recent statistical information of the United States of America, it has come under observation that there are several reasons and grounds for the accidental and unintentional deaths in the U.S. and amongst them drowning or submerging in water is one of the crucial, major, and substantial causes. The contemporary data also presents the evidence that the proportion of human life loss and injury due to drowning comes in the ranking chart as a principal and leading cause. This trend has come under surveillance particularly amongst the young children of less than fifteen years in age (Barraclough, 2007). Therefore, it becomes an important factor and aspect to educate the visitors and the general populace about water safety. One of the most effective ways of spreading and promoting the theme and moral of water safety is the commencement of projects and programs on the community level. The community-based programs come under functioning and demonstration in parks, health fai rs, classrooms, and many other places (Pancella, 2005). These projects and community programs are even in alliance and joint ventures with companies on a district or provincial level. Such programs play a vital and imperative role in creating awareness, familiarity, learning, and education on water safety for the entire community. It not only benefits the denizens of the community, rather, it also facilitates the local businesses, as well as they, do get the opportunity to market them and create their brand name (Barraclough, 2007). As the programs and projects are held in association and affiliation with the local coast guard companies, it helps in better understanding the local culture, customs, way of living and their perceptions about the residents of that place, and alleviates and eradicates the cultural barriers (Pancella, 2005). The projects and programs involve activities and online games for the children and the people that include ‘life jacket loaner program’, ‘floatation citations’, ‘demonstration of water safety practices’, ‘safe boating’, ‘water safety adventures’ and many more (Pancella, 2005). Other means of fun, entertainment and educational activities that emphasize and highlight the significance of water safety incorporate contests and endow with rewards or gifts, posters, coloring books, t-shirts, coupons and discounts, and many others (Barraclough, 2007). Programs and projects commenced at health fairs prove and authenticate to be an influential, dominant, and persuading factor in the learning of water safety tips and guidelines. As people are always concerned about their health, therefore the ratio of people visiting the health fairs tends to be relatively high. In addition, the health-fairs underline and focus on entertainment activities and promote the learning process with real-life examples, rather than just providing the written piece of information in the form of long h andouts; therefore, they attract and motivate the young people to be a part of it (Pancella, 2005).  

Roles that political parties and interest groups play in mobilizing Essay

Roles that political parties and interest groups play in mobilizing electoral participation in contemporary U.S. society - Essay Example There are other minor parties within the system such as the Libertarian Party and the Reform Party. For the past century, political parties have played an important role in resolving political conflicts in the US. Political parties play an important role to a democratic society such as the US. It is clear that legislative politics may not be steady without political parties. Therefore, if legislators wish to achieve something and those that want to push their policies can do so using a political party (Ginsberg et. al 69). Consequently, it can be stated that political parties facilitate efficiency within democratic organizations. It can be stated that political parties mobilize voters that have similar interests towards voting in a particular way. Political parties perform a couple of important functions. They pool together the demands and interests of the voters and channel them to the appropriate authorities. It is important to note that political parties approximate the citizens to the government. Political figures are elected into power through parties and therefore take advantage of the party label for reasons of strategic voting as well as information economization (Ginsberg et. al 123). The party candidates belongs to enables voters to make more informed decisions on how their leaders are likely to behave while elected in power. Since national parties are viewed as vehicles of political competition, a limited market is left for the candidates. It has become clear that voters make their decisions based on political parties instead of candidates as they are afraid of wasting their votes. This is what has been taking place in the US since the start of the democratic political system. Voters have never considerably changed their decisions with regards to the choice of parties. They have repetitively adhered to the two party system (de facto). Even if there have been some attempts to integrate other parties into the political system, most of them have

Poverty in New Mexico Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Poverty in New Mexico - Research Paper Example A recent USDA report says that 28% of the New Mexico population does not has access to medical insurance and are extremely vulnerable in case of ill-health (TVC grant county). Poverty is more prevalent in the rural areas, although it by no means spares the urban centers of the state. How did such massive poverty engulf the state of New Mexico? In this research paper we will analyze some of the historical and cultural reasons which have been responsible for high poverty rates in this state. In the last session we will analyze some solutions which can be implemented in order to ensure that the poverty levels decline in the state and people are able to sustain them. Historical & Cultural reasons for poverty Poverty in New Mexico is not a recent phenomenon. It has always been neglected by all its rulers. In this section we analyze the reasons for this historical neglect of the state of New Mexico.... These three cities were the gateway to the north for the Spaniards. The first gateway city was El Paso, Texas which was part of a fertile river valley and the lowest pass across the Rocky Mountains. The other gateway cities were Matamoros on the eastern edge and San Diego on the western edge (Roberts, Calvin A. Roberts and Chilton). The setting up of these cities led to the establishment of a North-South trade route, ignoring the east-west route at the expense of New Mexico region. As the New Mexican region was far away from Spanish seat of power, the development focused only on these three cities and the large hinterland of Arizona and New Mexico was ignored. After the independence of Mexico, the Mexican government continued the trend and focused only on the north south trade route; thus leading to the further growth of these cities .This caused prosperity in Texas and California while New Mexico and Arizona suffered from neglect (Roberts, Calvin A. Roberts and Chilton). Apache Raid s It is not that no exploration was made by the Spaniards or the Mexicans in to the territory of New Mexico .Coronado made a famous exploration in 1540 through Northern Mexico. However all the settlers in this area had to face raids by the Apache Indians? These regular raids made it difficult to set up roads and communication in the area. The explorer’s also did not find enough gold or other minerals here which will make economic sense to fight these raids. The Apache Indian were terrified of foreigners since the Spanish took them into slave trade and thus worked overtime to drive away settlers and development from the New Mexican region (Lund). Harsh Terrain The harsh and rough terrain of New Mexico and the absence of an east-west road system frustrated the

Lenses Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Lenses - Research Paper Example Whenever a lens is surrounded by air, refraction of light takes place from the air into the lens, crossing through the lens and then refracting back into the air. Each refraction can lead to a change in the direction of light travel. There are two types of lenses, converging lenses, and diverging lenses. A converging lens is one that causes light rays that were initially parallel to the central axis to converge, while a diverging lens is one that causes such light rays to diverge. When an object is placed in front of any of the two types of lenses, light rays that can refract either into or out of the lens from the object to produce an image of the object. A lens can produce an object image only because it can bend light rays, but it can only do this only if its refraction index is different from that of the surrounding medium (Halliday, Resnick & Walker, 936). The single spot to which light rays that have been refracted by a lens are converging is known as the focal point. The dista nce from the lens to the focal point, often denoted by the letter f, is called the focal length. Every lens has its own focal length that forms its defining characteristic. A lens can have either a positive or a negative focal length, depending on the side of the lens on which an object is placed. When the focal point of a lens is on the opposite side of the lens from where an object is placed, the resulting focal length is positive. On the other hand, when the focal point is on the same side as the object, the focal length is negative. While these terminologies are useful convections used by scientists and engineers to characterize lenses as well as mirrors, they contain no real physical meanings (Kirkpatrick & Gregory, 367). Both converging and diverging lenses form different types of images, depending on where the object is placed. When an object is placed inside the focal point, the lens forms a virtual image that is on the same side of the lens as the object, and having the sam e orientation. Thus, a converging lens can form two types of images, real or virtual, depending on whether the object is placed inside or outside of the focal point. In the case of a diverging lens, the image formed is virtual that is on the same side of the lens as the object, and contains the same orientation. This is regardless of the object distance and whether it is placed inside or outside of the focal point. Just like in the case of mirrors, when the image is real the image distance is taken to be positive while when the image is virtual it is taken to be negative. However, the location from lenses of real and virtual images are the reverse of those belonging to mirrors. Real images form on the lens side that is opposite the object, while virtual images form on the side that the object is located (Benenson, 358). There are lens systems that are arrangements of a correction of lenses that have a common optical axis, and are mostly applied in the correction of image defects tha t are present in single lenses. If the positions of the principal planes of the single lens are known together with their total focus, then it is possible for an optical image to be constructed for a lens system. The image construction is similar with that of thick lens if there are only two principal planes. In addition to lens systems, there are lenses with

Poverty in New Mexico Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Poverty in New Mexico - Research Paper Example A recent USDA report says that 28% of the New Mexico population does not has access to medical insurance and are extremely vulnerable in case of ill-health (TVC grant county). Poverty is more prevalent in the rural areas, although it by no means spares the urban centers of the state. How did such massive poverty engulf the state of New Mexico? In this research paper we will analyze some of the historical and cultural reasons which have been responsible for high poverty rates in this state. In the last session we will analyze some solutions which can be implemented in order to ensure that the poverty levels decline in the state and people are able to sustain them. Historical & Cultural reasons for poverty Poverty in New Mexico is not a recent phenomenon. It has always been neglected by all its rulers. In this section we analyze the reasons for this historical neglect of the state of New Mexico.... These three cities were the gateway to the north for the Spaniards. The first gateway city was El Paso, Texas which was part of a fertile river valley and the lowest pass across the Rocky Mountains. The other gateway cities were Matamoros on the eastern edge and San Diego on the western edge (Roberts, Calvin A. Roberts and Chilton). The setting up of these cities led to the establishment of a North-South trade route, ignoring the east-west route at the expense of New Mexico region. As the New Mexican region was far away from Spanish seat of power, the development focused only on these three cities and the large hinterland of Arizona and New Mexico was ignored. After the independence of Mexico, the Mexican government continued the trend and focused only on the north south trade route; thus leading to the further growth of these cities .This caused prosperity in Texas and California while New Mexico and Arizona suffered from neglect (Roberts, Calvin A. Roberts and Chilton). Apache Raid s It is not that no exploration was made by the Spaniards or the Mexicans in to the territory of New Mexico .Coronado made a famous exploration in 1540 through Northern Mexico. However all the settlers in this area had to face raids by the Apache Indians? These regular raids made it difficult to set up roads and communication in the area. The explorer’s also did not find enough gold or other minerals here which will make economic sense to fight these raids. The Apache Indian were terrified of foreigners since the Spanish took them into slave trade and thus worked overtime to drive away settlers and development from the New Mexican region (Lund). Harsh Terrain The harsh and rough terrain of New Mexico and the absence of an east-west road system frustrated the

A critical review of an academic article in which ideas about learning Essay

A critical review of an academic article in which ideas about learning relevant to the module are discussed - Essay Example Research on MI has spread like wildfire, critically dissecting every angle and application. Basically, Gardner claims that intelligence is not limited to the cognitive domain, as traditionally conceptualized. He views it in a much broader sense to include the individual’s affective, social and creative domains. He has come up with a number of intelligences a person possesses within him, as follows: Linguistic intelligence – this has to do with how a person uses words to express himself well verbally or in print. Some people just have a natural flair for speaking or writing and keep their audience in awe of the language they use and how it influences them. This intelligence is exhibited by motivational speakers, preachers, orators, writers and journalists. Logical mathematical intelligence – this is what is usually studied by cognitive psychologists and educators, how the mind works with logic, reasoning and mathematical accuracy. This is very much related to critical thinking and analytical skills. Gardner calls it the traditional scholastic intelligence which was given too much focus in schools and intelligence tests. Musical intelligence – this is the ability to create, perform and appreciate music. Gardner rates this equivalent to the other intelligences and refuses to call them mere talents, relegated less than intelligence. This is exhibited by composers, musicians, singers and musical critics or reviewers. Spatial intelligence – this is the capacity to visualize and concretize how things will turn out from the way it was planned, and to accurately estimate space allocations. Such intelligence is displayed by architects, artists, photographers, aviators, navigators and surgeons. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence – This is the ability to solve problems, express oneself or achieve a lot of goals using one’s body. Not everyone can be as limber and well-coordinated in doing so, unlike dancers, actors, mime artists, athletes and

The Insanity Defense Essay Example for Free

The Insanity Defense Essay The Insanity Defense is perhaps one of the most controversial issues in the legal world. It has become a favorite topic of critics for so long since issues regarding insanity defenses hold to be very sensitive. This paper will specifically discuss how the insanity defense works, what its effects are and how and why it has become controversial to many people.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Before we delve deeper into the topic, let us first clearly define what an insanity defense is. Insanity defense typically â€Å"refers to a plea that defendants are not guilty because they lacked the mental capacity to realize that they committed a wrong or appreciate why it was wrong† (Martin, 1998). Today, most states define insanity as a â€Å"mental impairment that impedes a person’s ability to understand the wrongfulness of his or her act (the cognitive prong). A number of states also permit a defense when the disability impairs the person’s ability to control the act (the volitional prong)† (Slobagin, 1998).   However one defines the insanity defense, it has always remained controversial because it allows those who committed a heinous crime get away from criminal punishments.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The defense of insanity is â€Å"based on the premise that those who are unable to control their actions or appreciate the criminality of their actions due to mental defect or illness should not be punished under criminal law† (Dreisbach, 2006). The insanity defense is a legal test of criminal responsibility and it does not follow that it conforms to the medical definition of mental illness. Though controversies have been thrown regarding the insanity defense, it is rarely used and rarely successful as well.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Since the insanity defense is not intended to be a medical definition of a mental incapacity, loads of controversies and criticisms have arisen over the legal criteria that courts should apply in determining whether a person should be acquitted on the basis of insanity. In terms of legalities, it is believed that courts have a lot to work on to assure the credibility of an insanity defense.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   But how did the insanity defense started? The guidelines for evaluating the criminal responsibility for defendants claiming to be insane were codified in the British courts in the case of Daniel M’Naughten in 1843. A 1995 Frontline Article goes back to how the M’Naughten rule started: â€Å"M’Naughten was a Scottish woodcutter who murdered the secretary to the prime minister, Sir Robert Peel, in a botched attempt to assassinate the prime minister himself. M’Naughten apparently believed that the prime minister was the architect of the myriad of personal and financial misfortunes that had befallen him. During his trial, nine witnesses testified to the fact that he was insane, and the jury acquitted him, finding him ‘not guilty by reason of insanity’†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The queen was never pleased with the outcome, thus she asked the House of Lords to review the verdict with a panel of judges. The judges eventually reversed the verdict of the jury, and the formulation that emerged from their review states that: â€Å"a defendant should not be held responsible for his actions if he could not tell that his actions were wrong at the time he committed them†. This became the basis of the law governing legal responsibility in cases of insanity in England. The American courts and legislatures embraced this rule for more than a hundred years with almost no modification, until the 20th century when much criticism was already thrown at the courts.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   During the 1950’s, a growing dissatisfaction of the M’Naughten test emerged. It was not just criticized in the legal circle but in the psychiatric circle as well. According to one 1995 Frontline article issue, one of the major criticisms of the M’Naughten rule is that â€Å"in its focus on the cognitive ability to know right from wrong, it fails to take into consideration the issue of control†. Psychiatrists agreed that it is indeed possible to understand that one’s behavior is wrong, but still be unable to stop oneself. To address this, the M’Naughter test was modified by some states with an ‘irresistible impulse’ provision, which â€Å"absolves a defendant who can distinguish right and wrong but is nonetheless unable to stop himself from committing an act he knows to be wrong†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Supreme Court has taken extra precautions in the proceedings in this area, with its few relevant decisions only indirectly addressing the proper formulation of the test for insanity. â€Å"Further evidence that the Court may not find the insanity defense to be an essential aspect of criminal liability comes from its treatment of the burden of proof relating to the defense† (Slobogin, 1998). The state may require the defendant to prove insanity beyond a reasonable doubt. According to Slobogin, â€Å"the prosecution must prove beyond a reasonable doubt every fact necessary to constitute proof of the crime with which the defendant is charged.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In as far as law is concerned, does insanity defense really have a legitimate role? Hooper and McLearen (2002) state that: â€Å"Outside of assisting in sentencing, there are two places for mental disease in the legal system. The first is a defendant’s ability to understand the trial process. People who do not understand the nature of the charges or the functioning of the legal system are considered unfit for trial. More germane to this article, if mental illness had a direct effect on a given criminal act, an individual can be found legally insane.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The concept of insanity has change over time but the basic notion of this is that there are individuals by virtue of mental conditions have no understanding or control with their unlawful behaviors. However, the presence of a mental illness will not necessarily predict a successful insanity finding.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Later on, the American Law Institute (ALI) promulgated a Model Penal Code that included a two-pronged provision for insanity. The ALI states that â€Å"an individual is not responsible for criminal conduct if, at the time of such conduct as a result of a mental disease of defect he lacks substantial capacity either to appreciate the criminality (wrongfulness) of his conduct or to conform his conduct to the requirements of the law† (Hooper and McLearen, 2002).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The American Law Institute was a significant softening of the M’Naughten standard. Frontline explains that â€Å"instead of requiring a defendant to have no understanding whatsoever of the nature of his acts or the difference between right and wrong, the ALI standard requires merely the person lacks a ‘substantial capacity’ to understand the right from wrong†. The ALI generally expands the M’Naughten rule to include an ‘irresistible impulse’ component. The ALI standard also excludes defendants whose mental illness, defect or incapacity only manifest itself in criminal or antisocial conduct, thus addressing the conundrum of the serial killer whose only symptom of a mental illness is the killing of his victims.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A popular example of a case in insanity defense is when John Hinckley Jr. shot the then US President Ronald Reagan and other Presidential officers in 1981. Hinckley claimed that he was trying to impress the actress Jodie Foster, with whom he felt he was infatuated. He later described the incident in a letter to The New York Times as â€Å"the greatest love offering in the history of the world†¦ At one time Miss Foster was a star and I was the insignificant fan. Now everything is changed. I am Napoleon and she is Josephine. I am Romeo and she is Juliet.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A jury acquitted Hinckley of 13 assault, murder and weapon counts, finding him not guilty by reason of insanity. This triggered a public outcry against what many perceived to be a loophole in the justice system that allowed an obviously guilty man to escape punishment. Because of the acquittal, widespread calls for the abolishment, or at least the substantial revision of the insanity-plea laws ensued.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Due to the incessant public outrage, the members of the Congress then responded to this by introducing 26 separate pieces of legislation designed to abolish or modify the insanity defense. All the new proposals were aimed at creating a stricter federal standard that would avoid acquittals like that of Hinckley. The Hinckley verdict introduced ways to make it more difficult to sustain an insanity plea.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The insanity defense has always been a complex topic and a lot of academic and scholarly works have been devoted entirely to explain its nuances. Learnmore lays down some major points of interest: Despite popular perceptions to the contrary, defendants rarely enter pleas of â€Å"not guilty by reason of insanity†. On the few occasions that the defendant does raise it, judges and jurors rarely support it. Neither the legal system nor psychiatrists can agree on a single meaning of insanity in the criminal law context. Various definitions have been employed, making the insanity defense more controversial to people. Defendants found not guilty by reason of insanity are not automatically set free. They are usually confined to a mental institution, and not released until their sanity is established. These defendants can spend more time in a mental institution than they would have spent in prison had they been convicted. An insanity defense normally rests on the testimony of a psychiatrist, who testifies for the defendant after examining him and his past history, and the facts of the case. Courts appoint psychiatrists at government expense to assist poor defendants who cannot afford to hire their own psychiatrists. There is no wonder that the insanity defense has held a lot of controversies. With its very perplex nature, there are always rooms for loopholes. For instance, how can one actually measure the authenticity of the â€Å"guilty by reason of insanity† plea? If one pleads that he is insane at the time of trial, how can one be sure that his testimonies are plausible enough to free him from guilt or give a lighter verdict? Could an insanity defense be the perfect step to take to get away from a serious crime that has been committed? Why cannot we have a unified definition of insanity? Why do requirements vary in a number of states? These and a lot more questions with regard to insanity defense are still left unanswered. Currently, the requirements for insanity vary by state. The typical standards require that â€Å"a person be unable to differentiate between right and wrong at the time of the crime. The inability to appreciate the wrongfulness of conduct must be the direct result of a mental disease or defect† (Hooper and McLearen, 2002). This requirement actually leaves me to ponder on a certain things. If the person is legally insane at the time of the crime, how can the legal system be assured of a legally insane person’s testimonies if the person has a mental disease or defect? Can the legal system assure the people that the insanity defense was not widely misused? Due to the controversies being linked to insanity defense, there have been wide attempts to eliminate the loopholes of the system and thereby force mentally ill individuals into prison. â€Å"Some state decisions have noted that criminal intent is an absolute necessary part of any crime† (Hooper and McLearen, 2002). So it is just right that the laws should be more focused on the guilty mind. Under these laws, a person must, as a result of a mental illness, lack the ability to willingly or knowingly commit and act. This looks more at criminal intent rather than psychiatric diagnoses, therefore claiming an end to criminals getting off free. There have been states who have omitted the insanity defense entirely, instead allowing mental state to be raised only as a mitigating factor. But insanity defenses are not always successful. Only a handful of insanity defense cases have won acquittal. Though the percentage of winning an insanity defense is low, it is still likely to hold controversies. Critics have argued that â€Å"some defendants misuse it, effectively faking insanity to acquittals or less severe convictions† (Martin, 1998). Oftentimes, trials involving insanity defense get the most attention because the crimes involved in such cases are extremely bizarre. The standard for insanity defense gets periodic reviews especially after a verdict that the public finds shocking. Laws have been passed to have stricter standards for insanity defenses. â€Å"Instead of requiring prosecutors to prove a defendant’s sanity, defense attorneys now carry the burden of persuading a judge or a jury of the client’s insanity† (Martin, 1998). Martin further explains that some states have also adopted a tougher and stricter release system. Such changes in Connecticut doubled the average term acquitted defendants spend committed in institutions. This system unsurprisingly caused the number of insanity pleas to drop. With stricter standards and stricter release systems, insanity pleas have seriously dropped. Can this be considered a coincidence or a mere manifestation that previous insanity pleas were actually just faked? If because of stricter standards and tougher release systems a number of insanity pleas dropped, cannot all states impose similar standards and systems? If this will answer the endless controversies that are being associated with insanity defenses, then probably it is already high time that states take a look at their insanity defenses standards and make abrupt revisions. A person who has made criminal acts should not just easily escape by means of an insanity defense. The person just leaves room for the people to doubt the system and make outrageous cries to give enough justice to the victim of the so-called â€Å"insane† person. The insanity defense for me is just an available excuse for an accused person to be absolved from his or her criminal responsibility for his or her conduct. The rules for insanity defense had been made flexible depending on the weight of the situation and the reaction f the public. For an insanity defense to be made an excuse in having been committed a serious crime is a total ridicule for me. For if one lacks the capacity to know what is right from wrong, then how can a person actually know if he is actually insane? How can he be so sure that he was insane at the time that the crime was committed? Had there been any development in insanity defense law? The introduction of the â€Å"guilty but mentally ill† verdict in many states is considered the biggest development in the insanity defense law. Frontline explains that a defendant who receives a â€Å"guilty but mentally ill† verdict is still considered legally guilty of the crime in question, but since the defendant is mentally ill, the defendant is entitled to receive mental health treatment while institutionalized. If symptoms remit, however, the defendant is required to serve out the remainder of his sentence in a regular correctional facility, unlike a defendant who was acquitted by reason of insanity, who must be released if it is determined he is no longer dangerous to himself or others. In cases of an insanity defense, it is just right and proper that both the rights of the victim and the defendant who pleads to be insane must be protected. However one puts it, a crime has still been done regardless of one’s mental state. If indeed proven that the defendant is mentally defective or ill at the time of the crime, then proper steps must be taken into account. The verdict may be less severe that what a sane person might get, but proper medications for the defendant must be seriously followed before he gets more destructive to others and to himself. At this point, I am asking myself, why are there insanity pleas? Perhaps, it is the real situation. Perhaps the defendant is really not in a normal mental state at the time the crime happened. But how could the defendant actually defend himself given his mental incapacity to know what is right or wrong? And perhaps, just maybe, if there are no other good defenses to get a person out of a seriously committed crime, then insanity pleads might just be the solution. Perhaps it is making some sense. Insanity pleads have lowered down in number after stricter standards and systems. With both parties that should be considered for this law, emotions and judgmental instincts of people should not really get in the way. This is one serious problem that needs to be addressed and a procedural and logical system must take place to protect the rights of all parties involved. Progresses have been done and I certainly hope that there will come a time that the insanity defense would no longer hold controversies because justice has been served – both for the victim and the defendant. REFERENCES Dreisbach, Daniel L. Criminal Law. Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2006 [DVD]. Redmond, WA:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Microsoft Corporation, 2005. Insanity as a criminal defense. Retrieved December 9, 2007, from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.theblanchlawfirm.com/NewsDetails-36/Insanity+as+a+Criminal+   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Defense.html?newsid=38 A crime of insanity. Retrieved December 9, 2007, from http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Pages/frontline/shows/crime/trial/history.html#mn Slobogin, C. (1998). Insanity defense. Thomson Gale. Retrieved December 9, 2007, from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.answers.com./topic/insanity-defense?cat=biz-fin Hooper, J., and McLearen, A. (2002, April). Does the insanity defense have a legitimate   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   role? [electronic version]. The Psychiatric times, 19 (4). Retrieved December 9, 2007,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   from http://www.psychiatrictimes.cm/p020452.html Martin, J. (1998, February 2007). The insanity defense: a closer look [electronic version].   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Washingto Post. Retrieved December 9, 2007 from http://www.washingtonpost.com/   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   wp-srv/local/longerm/aron/qa227.htm

Automated Diabetic Retinopathy Detection System

Automated Diabetic Retinopathy Detection System ABSTRACT DETECTION OF EXUDATES USING GUI Automated diabetic retinopathy detection system is an essential requirement due to developing diabetic retinopathy patients around the globe. The primary intention of the research is to detect exudates in digital fundus image for diabetic retinopathy. In this particular study, we provide an efficient method for identifying and classifying the exudates as soft exudates and hard exudates. Apart from these, this study compares three methods namely Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization, Histogram Equalization and Mahalanobis Distance for enhancing a digital fundus image to detect and choose the best one to classify exudates in Retinal images by adopting graphical user interface with the help of MATLAB. From the findings of the study, in the image enhancement application of blood vessels, Mahalanobis distance is recognized as the best algorithm. It was evident from the analysis that the monitoring and detecting exudates in the fundus of the eye are essential for diabetic patien ts. Moreover, it shows that hard and soft exudates are a primary tool of diabetic retinopathy that can be quantified automatically. In addition to these, it appears that drawbacks must be resolved to predict an appropriate detection method for exudates in digital fundus images. From the findings, it was evident that suitable algorithm has to be selected and verified on several images which provide likely and excellent outcomes. LIST OF TABLES Comparison of Histogram Equalization (HE), Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization (CLAHE) and Mahalanobis Distance(MD)14 LIST OF FIGURE Image before enhancement Histogram before enhancement Image after histogram equalization Histogram after HE Image after CLAHE Histogram after CLAHE Image after Mahalanobis distance enhancement Histogram after Mahalanobis distance enhancement Flow chart of the method CIELab color space Input image K-means clustered image Morphological image Dilated image Eroded image Optic disc detection Exudates image   Hard and soft exudates Input DFI   Enhancement methods of DFI Step-1 of exudate detection Step-2 by giving input image Step-3 enhancing input image Step-4 exudates image of abnormal eye Normal eye output displaying no exudates LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AHE Adaptive Histogram Equalization CIE Commission Internationale de lEclairage CLAHE Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization CMYK Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Key DRD iabetic Retinopathy DFI Digital Fundus Image HE Histogram Equalization MD Mahalanobis Distance MM Mathematical Morphology RGB Red, Green, Blue RRGS Recursive Region Growing Segmentation Chapter 1 Introduction Research Background: Diabetic retinopathy is a common disease nowadays that can prevail in anyone having type 1 or type-2 diabetes. The opportunity of being influenced by this disease relies on the time duration of a person having diabetes. Long-term diabetes leads to greater blood sugar level that causes harm by changing the flow of blood in retinal blood vessels. It is similar that in the previous stage DR shows no symptoms and hence without facing medical investigation it is not feasible to predict the existence of the disease. Exudative retinopathy is a condition referred by the occurrence of yellow or white mass that exists due to leakage of proteins and fats along with water from vessels of blood in the retina. It is important to predict the exudates occurrence in fundus oculi because the collection of these exudates may lead to complete loss of vision (Manpreetkaur, 2015). Walter et al. (2001) has mentioned that the disease of DR evolved exudates in eye fundus. The physicians regard exudates as on e of the primary indicators of DR severity. Exudates are yellow spot resided in fundus. This disease of diabetes causes leakage of fluid from vessels of blood. For a long time, uncontrolled diabetes may evolve as exudates in eye fundus. The exudates initiate to develop in little number and size. If the diabetes is not monitored or controlled for a long time the number and size of exudates will grow. The exudates growth in eye fundus may cause blindness. Tasman and Jaeger (2001) have stated that exudates seem as bright deposits of yellow-white on the retina due to lipid leakage from abnormal vessels. Their size and shape differ with various stages of retinopathy. These lesions are related to many diseases of retinal vascular involving DME (diabetic macular edema), DR (diabetic retinopathy), retinal venous obstruction, hypertensive retinopathy, radiation retinopathy and retinal arterial microaneurysms, capillary hemangioma of retina and disease of the coat. Welfera et al. (2010) have stated that exudation is a hazardous case because it can lead to a loss of vision when existing in the central macular area. Thus such lesions must be predicted, and appropriate medical intervention must be acquired to avoid damages to visual acuity of the patient. Automatic exudates detection in DR patients retinas could enhance early prediction of DR and could support doctors track the treatment progress over time. Thus it can be inferred that exudates detection by computer could provide a precise and rapid diagnosis to specialist examination and support the clinician to acquire timely decision to take proper treatment. Problem Statement: Diabetes is a rapidly developing common disease among people globally which causes various organs dysfunction. Diabetic retinopathy is the primary blindness cause in adults. Sometimes, due to long-term diabetes, the retinal blood vessels are harmed, this eye disease is known as diabetic retinopathy. It is essential to automatically predict the lesions of diabetic retinopathy at an early stage to hinder further loss of vision. Exudates are significant diabetic retinopathy symptoms. Exudates are bright lesions that are an important sign of this disease. It is the major signs of DR a major vision loss cause in diabetic patients. Primary concern of the research Aim: The primary goal of the study is to analyze an automated way for exudates in eyes. Objectives: To examine the causes of exudates in diabetic retinopathy patients. To analyze the types of exudates used in digital fund images. To evaluate the different enhancement methods used to predict the exudates in fundus images. To determine the drawbacks of enhancement methods of exudates in digital fundus images. To propose a promising algorithm to detect the exudates in digital fundus images. Limitations of the study: This study is limited to diabetic retinopathy patients. This study is restricted to exudates detection only. This study evaluates an automated way for exudates in eyes. The structure of the thesis This argument is made up of the following five chapters: Chapter 1: This is the introduction section that gives the necessary research background andconcepts related to the research. Chapter 2: This chapter is the review of literature that analyzes several existing worksrelated to finding an automated way for exudates in eyes. Chapter 3: This chapter describes the design of the system that explains in detailabout the enhancement methods applied in digital fundus image for detection of diabetic retinopathy. Chapter 4: This chapter discusses the implementation plan of digital fundus images and compares different researches done by authors and depicts the results of the proposed system. Chapter 5: This is the conclusion section that gives the outcome of the research byanswering the research questions and recommendations for future improvement. In addition to that, this thesis has bibliography containing the sources used in collecting secondary data in the study and an appendix that has tools like questionnaires are utilized in the gathering primary data for the research. Chapter-2 Literature Review Introduction: This chapter provides an overview on the detection of exudates in digital fundus image for diabetic retinopathy. This chapter discusses in detail about the digital fundus image. In addition to these, this chapter discusses in detail about the classification of exudates in retinal images. Apart from these, this study provides the comparison of Histogram equalization (HE), contrast limited adaptive histogram equalization (CLAHE) and Mahalanobis distance (MD) methods to enhance the digital fundus image for detection. Literature on Digital fundus images The benefits of digital imaging are rate of access to information (images), quick and accurate duplication, chronicling and transmission, and prompt access to the outcomes. The imaging technique can be rehashed if the nature of the underlying result is deficient. Despite the fact that film-based images can be digitized (to register macular color thickness conveyance from two different wavelength-based pictures or to evaluate the status of the optic nerve), quick access to the images is unrealistic, as it is important to build up the film first. This deferral keeps the picture from checking the outcomes and in this manner redressing any issue in the procurement procedure, which can be efficiently accomplished in digital imaging at no extra cost. The digitization of fundus photos was tended to by (Cideciyan et al., 1991) who proposed a nonlinear rebuilding model fusing four parts: the eye, the fundus camera, the film and the scanner. Scholl et al. (2004) observed digitized images to be valuable for evaluating age-connected maculopathy and age-connected macular degeneration. Comparison Table 1: Comparison of Histogram Equalization (HE), Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization (CLAHE) and Mahalanobis Distance (MD) Histogram equalization Contrast limited adaptive histogram equalization Mahalanobis distance This technique is based on the specification of the histogram. CLAHE is considered as the necessary preprocessing step, and it has the tendency to generate the images for extracting the features of a pixel in the classification process. This method has carried out by identifying the pixels of the background images only by leaving the foreground images. HE is relatively straightforward technique and an invertible operator. Indiscrimination is one of the biggest disadvantages of this method. CLAHE is also denoted as the automatic and efficient method to detect the exudates effectively. The selective enhancement of MD has created the fewer artifacts for further processing than HE and CLAHE. HE has used the neighborhood-based approach on the pixels, and it has the tendency to operate based on the modification of histogram to obtain the new images efficiently. The technique of CLAHE has the capability to provide the green channel image enhancement with high quality. This method can produce the similar curve to the Gaussian-shaped curve ideally. HE has uniformly distributed the output histogram by using the cumulated histogram like the mapping function. CLAHE has limited the process of amplification by clipping the histogram at the predefined value. MD algorithm has given better histogram result when compared to HE and CLAHE Research gap: This study examines about the detection of exudates in digital fundus image for diabetic retinopathy. The research gap predicted in this study is that there are many studies on the detection of exudates in digital fundus image for diabetic retinopathy. But no studies have clearly determined the successful approaches towards the detection of diabetic retinopathy in fundus images. Detection and classification of diabetic retinopathy pathologies in fundus images have been investigated by Agurto (2012). He studied the effects of image compression and degradation on an automatic diabetic retinopathy screening algorithm. In addition to these, the Agurto et al. (2012) investigated the detection of hard exudates and red lesions in the macula using the multi-scale approach. Walter et al. (2002) carried out an investigation to contribute the image processing to the diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy. Authors also focused on automatic detection of diabetic retinopathy from eye fundus images (Man preetkaur, 2015). There are also studies that are focused on coarse-to-fine strategy for automatically identifying exudates in color eye fundus images. Chapter-3 Research Design Introduction: This part examines the design of the study to determine an automated way for finding exudates in eyes. This study compares three methods namely CLAHE (Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization), Histogram Equalization (HE) and Mahalanobis Distance (MD) for enhancing a digital fundus image to detect and choose the best one to classify exudates in Retinal images by adopting graphical user interface in MATLAB. Research design: The reason of the study is to detect exudates in digital fundus image for diabetic retinopathy. In this particular study, we provide an efficient method for identifying and classifying the exudates as soft exudates and hard exudates. The retinal image seen in the CIELab space of the color is pre-processed for eliminating noise. Further, a network of blood vessels is removed for facilitating detection and removing the optic disc. At the same time, optic disc is removed using the technique of Hough transform. Candidate exudates are identified using the method of k-means clustering. At last, exudates are categorized as the soft and hard one by their threshold and edge energy. Developed method has yielded better outcomes. Histogram Equalization: Histogram equalization is a technique for adjusting image intensities to enhance contrast. HE is an operation that is based on histogram specification or modification to obtain new pictures. The objective of this contrast enhancement technique is to get a new enhanced image that has a uniform histogram that only plots the frequency at each gray-level from 0 (black) to 255 (white). Each histogram represents the frequency of occurrence of all gray-level in the image. Figure 1: Image before enhancement Figure 2: Histogram before equalization Figure 3: Image after histogram equalization Figure 4: Histogram after histogram equalization Contrast Limited Adaptive Histogram Equalization: CLAHE is considered as a locally adaptive method for contrast enhancement. CLAHE is an enhanced version of adaptive HE (AHE) method. The technique AHE has a realistic restriction that homogenous part in the image leads to over-amplification of noise due to thin series of pixels are plotted to a whole range of visualization. In the meantime, it was noticed that contrast limited AHE (CLAHE) was designed for preventing this noise over-amplification in homogenous regions. CLAHE restricts the sound amplification in the image in such a way that image looks like very real. Figure 5: Image after CLAHE Figure 6: Histogram after CLAHE Mahalanobis Distance: Image enhancement using the Mahalanobis distance method is performed by identifying the background image pixels and eliminating them, leaving only the foreground image. It is based on the assumption that in image neighborhood N, the background pixels has significantly different intensity value than those of the foreground pixels. For each pixel (x, y) in the picture, the mean  µn (x, y) and the standard deviation à Ã†â€™n (x, y) of the statistical distribution of intensities in N are estimated. The sample means;  µn is used as the estimator for  µn (x, y) and the e sample standard deviation; à Ã†â€™ n is the estimator for à Ã†â€™n (x, y). If the intensity of pixel (x, y) is close to the mean intensity in N, it is considered to belong to the background set ÃŽÂ ². As defined mathematically in Eq. 1, the expression implies that pixel (x, y) belongs to ÃŽÂ ² if the stated condition is satisfied. Those images would later be combined to evaluate the MD image, which can be segmented using the threshold t to identify the background pixels. Figure 7: Image after MD enhancement Figure 8: Histogram after MD enhancement Summary: This research compares three methods namely CLAHE, HE, MD to enhance a digital fundus image to detect and choose the best one to classify exudates in Retinal images by adopting graphical user interface in MATLAB. It was evident from the above findings that candidate exudates are identified using the technique of Mahalanobis Distance enhancement. Chapter 4 Implementation Plan, Discussion, and Results Introduction: This chapter presents the implementation plan of detection of exudates in digital fundus images by proposed technique. The results of proposed method are also shown. Implementation Plan: The proposed system is implemented using the digital fundus images. DFIs (digital fundus images) are essential in finding the pathological fact that would lead to different diseases. However, digital fundus images have many illumination and contrast issues which make enhancement an important factor. Subsequently, digital fundus images must be developed to permit for good visualization to satisfy ophthalmologists to undertake their diagnosis. The below figure shows the implementation plan of detection of exudates in digital fundus images: Figure 9: Flow chart of the method 4.3 Conversion from RGB color space to CIELab color space A Lab color space is a color-opponent space with dimension L* for lightness and a* and b* for the color-opponent dimensions, based on nonlinearly compressed CIE XYZ color space coordinates. The CIELab color scale is an approximately uniform color range. In a standard color scale, the differences between the points plotted in the color space correspond to the visual difference between the colors plotted. The CIELab color space is organized in a cube form. The L* runs from top to bottom. The maximum for L* is 100, which represents a perfect reflecting diffuser. The minimum for L* is zero, which represents black. The a* and b* axes have no specific numerical limits. Positive a* is red, Negative a* is green. Positive b* is yellow, Negative b* is blue. Figure 10: CIELab color space It is perceptual uniform color space. Perceptual uniformity means how two colors differ from seeing when human observe that two colors. Hence uniform color spaces were defined in such way that all the colors are arranged by the perceptual difference of the colors. The L component closely matches human perception of lightness, and by having it as an independent quantity to control, it can be used to make accurate color corrections without affecting the a* and b* color twins. RGB or CMYK color spaces are designed to model the output of physical devices rather than human visual perception. This color model is used in this work to identify even a small intensity variation. K-means Clustering K-means clustering is a method of vector quantization, originally from signal processing, that is accessible for cluster analysis in data mining. K-means clustering aims to partition n observations into k clusters in which each observation belongs to the cluster with the nearest mean, serving as a prototype of the cluster. This results in a partitioning of the data space into Voronoi cells. K-Means algorithm is chosen because of its simplicity. In this work, k-means clustering is used to partition the data into groups for identifying exudates locations. K-means Usage in our project: Because of the computational simplicity of the k-means algorithm over other clustering algorithms, we decided to use the k-mean clustering in the proposed work. The k-mean clustering algorithm is a particular case of the generalized hard clustering algorithms. It is applied when point representatives are used, and the squared Euclidean Distance is adopted to measure the dissimilarities between vectors and cluster representatives. The k-means algorithm is given below. The steps involved in K-Means algorithm are: Select an initial partition with k clusters Generate a new partition by assigning each pattern to its closest cluster center. Compute new cluster centers. Continue to do steps 2 and 3 until centroids do not change. Figure 11: Input image Figure 12: k-means clustered image Blood vessel detection To facilitate exudates extraction from the pre-processed image, blood vessel network is detected and then eliminated from the picture using Morphological operations. Morphological operations can readily be used in medical image analysis as it supports powerful tools to extract pathologies. The morphological operations employed in the proposed work are given below. An important part of applying morphological operations is to decide on the shape and size of structuring element. In the proposed work, a ball-shaped structuring element of size 8, was found to be optimal for eliminating the blood vessel network from the retinal images of local database Morphological Image Processing: Mathematical morphology (MM) is a theory and technique for the analysis and treatment of geometrical structures, based on set theory, lattice theory, topology, and random functions. MM is most commonly applied to digital images, but it can be employed as well on graphs, surface meshes, solids, and many other spatial structures. Topological and geometrical continuous-space concepts such as size, shape, convexity, connectivity, and geodesic distance, were introduced by MM on both continuous and discrete spaces. MM is also the foundation of morphological image processing, which consists of a set of operators that transform images according to the above characterizations. The basic morphological operators are erosion, dilation, opening, and closing. Dilation: Dilation is one of the two first operators in the area of mathematical morphology, the other being erosion. The primary effect of the operator on a binary image is to gradually enlarge the boundaries of regions of foreground pixels (i.e. white pixels, typically). Thus areas of foreground pixels grow while holes within those regions become smaller. The dilation operator takes two pieces of data as inputs. The first is the image which is to be dilated. The second is a (usually small) set of coordinate points known as a structuring element (also referred to as a kernel). It is this structuring element that determines the precise effect of the dilation on the input image. Figure 13: Dilated image Erosion: Erosion is one of the two first operators in the area of mathematical morphology, the other being dilation. The main effect of the operator on a binary image is to erode away the boundaries of regions of foreground pixels (i.e. white pixels, typically). Thus areas of foreground pixels shrink in size, and holes within those areas become larger. The erosion operator takes two pieces of data as inputs. The first is the image which is to be eroded. The second is a (usually  small) set of coordinate points known as a structuring element (also referred to as a kernel). It is this structuring element that determines the precise effect of the erosion of the input image. Figure 14: Eroded image Figure 15: Morphological image Hough Transform The Hough transform is a feature extraction technique used in image analysis, computer vision, and digital image processing. The purpose of the method is to find imperfect instances of objects within a particular class of shapes by a voting procedure. This voting process is carried out in a parameter space, from which object candidates are obtained as local maxima in a so-called accumulator space that is explicitly constructed by the algorithm for computing the Hough transform. In this project work, circular Hough transform is used to detect optic disk in a retinal image. Elimination of optic disk is necessary for detection of exudates. If the optic disk is not eliminated from a picture, there is a chance of identifying optic disk as exudates, which leads to the false result. Circular Hough Transform Algorithm works is presented below. Step1: Convert color retinal image into grayscale Step2: Create a 3D Hough array (accumulator) with the first two dimensions representing thecoordinates of the circle origin, and the third dimension represents the radii. Step3: Perform edge detection using the Canny edge detector. For each edge pixel, increment thecorresponding elements in the Hough array. Step4: Collect candidate circles, and then delete similar circles. Step5: Circle the object. Figure 16: Optic disc detection Classifying Hard and Soft exudates The final step is to classify the exudates as hard and soft based on the threshold value and edge energy. Edge power calculation is required to extract the exudates with sharp edges which are a characteristic feature of hard exudates. We preferred canny operator over Kirsch operator for edge energy detection. The hard exudates are extracted by combining this edge energy and a Threshold value. To obtain the soft exudates subtract the hard exudates image from the picture that contains both types of exudates. Hard exudates and soft exudates are classified by using reference sum value of white pixels in exudates image. Figure 17: Exudates image Figure 18: Hard and soft exudates Chapter 5 Results and Conclusion Introduction: This section presents the results and conclusion of the research by answering research questions and suggestions for future studies. Results: From the proposed system the results acquired are that the exudates are predicted, then it is categorized as hard, and soft exudates and the severity level is estimated. The first figure shows the input as an original image: Figure 19: Input image Source: Author In the next figure the enhancement methods are applied to digital fundus images for detection of diabetic retinopathy: Figure20: Enhancement methods of DFI Next, the exudates are detected which is depicted in the below set of figures: Figure 21: Step-1 of exudate detection Figure 22: Step-2 giving input image Figure 23: Step-3 enhancing the input image Figure 24: exudate image of abnormal eye Repeating the same procedure for normal eye and is shown in the following figure: Figure 25: Normal eye output displaying no exudates The results of the study reveal that Mahalanobis Distance is the best algorithm for the blood vessels image enhancement application. Throughout the experiment, we have found an average of 88% sensitivity and 60% accuracy. Conclusion Automated diabetic retinopathy detection has become an important research because of the severity of increase in cause of blindness among the diabetes patients. DR is caused mainly by the alterations in retinas blood vessels due to increased level of blood glucose. Exudates are one of the major signs of D