Pittsburgh Youth Study Essay

According to the Pittsburgh Youth Study conducted by Katharine Browning, Ph.D., and Rolf Loeber, Ph.D., it was found that there are multiple factors that are connected with youth delinquency.   The objective of the study was to determine the factors in delinquency involvement and other related behaviors (Browning & Loeber, 1999).   Those involved in the study consisted of three groups of boys, and they were observed within the duration of almost ten years (Browning & Loeber, 1999).   The study group included a random selection of first, fourth and seventh graders.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To begin with, Browning and Loeber (1999) found that African-American boys were more prone to juvenile delinquency than their Caucasian counterparts.   It was also discovered that as widespread delinquency increased, so did the frequency.   Again, the percentage for African-American boys were higher than Caucasian ones.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Moreover, the study showed that delinquent behaviors followed a certain pattern; what began as a less serious behavior eventually progressed to a more serious one (Browning & Loeber, 1999).   Browning and Loeber (1999) listed three pathways which categorized the offenses, all of which displayed the shift from a less serious offense like lying to a more serious act like property damage or fighting.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   More importantly, the study determined two factors that causes juvenile offense.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The first one was innate forces, internal factors such as intelligent quotient (IQ) and personality (Browning & Loeber, 1999).   The second factor was external forces, which consists of family members and friends (Browning & Loeber, 1999).   The external forces were contained within different environments, such as the school and home (Browning & Loeber, 1999).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The study also came across some â€Å"individual risk factors† (Browning & Loeber, 1999).   First, it was found that careless behaviors were related to delinquency (Browning & Loeber, 1999).   Other factors that contributed to delinquency include intelligence quotient and socioeconomic status (Browning & Loeber, 1999).   Second, delinquents were found to have â€Å"low threshold for negative feelings,† and were more prone to an impulsive manner (Browning & Loeber, 1999).   Aside from these, there were other risk factors like depression and guilt (Browning & Loeber, 1999).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Browning and Loeber also determined how family factors are also related to delinquency.   Poor supervision is a major element in delinquency; specific examples include the repercussions of physical punishments and inadequate communication between parents and sons (Browning & Loeber, 1999).   â€Å"Other family risk factors include low socioeconomic status, bad neighborhood and exposure to social services† (Browning & Loeber, 1999).   Moreover, it was found that broken families also caused delinquency (Browning & Loeber, 1999).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The findings of the study provided the authorities with warning signs to look out for in potential delinquents.   In my opinion, the government should take these findings and work out a plan to avoid further delinquency.   According to the findings, the most prone to delinquency are those with low socioeconomic status, those with family problems, and African-American boys.    The government should then focus their efforts to these specific categories.   For instance, they can hold summer camps for African-American youth, where they can instill positive values so that they would not go astray.   They should provide seminars for parents, so that they can be more effective in their parenting and communicating with their children.   Since delinquency can be traced to one’s socioeconomic status, the government should create venues for the improvement of one’s social standing.   These findings are extremely helpful in stopping youth delinquency, and the government should take advantage of these to effect change.   References Browning, K., & Loeber, R. (1999). Highlights of findings from the Pittsburgh youth study. OJJDP Fact Sheet, 95.

Types of Industrial Conflicts

Types of Industrial Conflict Industrial conflict occurs when employees express their dissatisfaction with management over the current state of the management-employee relationship. The causes of such dissatisfaction are typically matters related to regular wage payment, wage increase or remunerations according to terms of the employment contract. Employees can express such dissatisfaction in formal or informal ways.Formal methods are organized and are planned in advance, while informal ones are spontaneous and unorganized, usually taking management by surprise. There are different types of formal and informal industrial conflicts. 1. Strike oA strike is the employees' temporary withdrawal of services, contrary to an employment contract. It is a formal form of industrial conflict that is usually organized by a trade union. (Trade unions are representatives of employment that ensure that employee working conditions and earnings are managed according to rule. During typical strikes, tra de unions ensure that there are no alternative means of getting the services that employees have refused to provide. A strikes usually continues until management addresses the matter of dissatisfaction that caused it. Work-to-rule oWork-to-rule, another form of formal industrial action, occurs when workers work strictly according to the legal terms of their contract. They deliberately refuse to make use of their initiative and act rigidly, like pre-programmed machines.For instance, a nurse may deliberately refuse to answer phone calls that are meant for doctors (since her terms of contract do not include phone-answering). A stenographer may ignore glaring grammatical errors in what her boss dictates to her (since, strictly speaking, her responsibility is merely to transcribe whatever her boss dictates to her). Since work-to-rule does not go against any formal terms of contract, it rarely brings punishment. However, it naturally slows down work progress. o Absenteeism Absenteeism, an informal form of industrial conflict, occurs when employees deliberately refuse to report to their workplace. Absenteeism is not always a sign of industrial conflict, since employees can fail to report to work due to injury or illness, for instance. Thus industrial-conflict absenteeism merely increases the loss of productivity and revenue that an organization suffers due to failure of workers to report for duty due to reasons of personal incapacity that they cannot help, such as illness.Sabotage oSabotage, another form of informal industrial conflict, occurs when employees deliberately damage their organization's production or reputation. This could take the form of slowing down production, temporarily disabling machinery, direct destruction of organization's property or slandering the organization. Employers who engage in sabotage (saboteurs) usually hide their individual identities, but do not shy away from identifying themselves as a pressure group

Urban design starts with social design. Critically evaluate this Essay

Urban design starts with social design. Critically evaluate this statement in the context of place-making - Essay Example Social design involves the designer coming up with creative designs while keeping his or her responsibility in the society in mind. The designer uses the design to bring about the required social change. From the definitions, it is evident that there exist a relationship between urban design, social design and placemaking. In all of them, the designer has the client’s preferences at heart designing to ensure that the wants of their clients are fulfilled. In place making, the comfort and happiness of the client is the motivation behind its design. In urban design, the main motivation involves changing the shape of villages, cities and towns according to the specification of clients in those areas. In social design, the designer is interested in enhancing their social responsibility. Despite this relationship, social design is not the first to consider when doing urban design and placemaking. The reason is that it is difficult for inhabitants in a certain area to have the same sense of place (Lucas 2012). Individual clients for the different designs experience multiple and disjointed areas with poor relationships among them. There exists a difference between social policy, expectations of the reform is and real-place making capacity. There is an increasing tension existing between planners and architects concerned with placemaking and an enlightened approach to urban designs, though they all have a less socially based agenda. Despite that, they still have a tremendous influence on shaping what can be built through the enforcement of the technical requirements and standards. Urban designs does not start with social design, it could start with needs and preferences of the client, which is more important than social design. In beginning the social impact initiative for these social designers, they have to declare their specific intentions. The reason is that designs and

A person or a show that had an influence on the mass media Essay

A person or a show that had an influence on the mass media - Essay Example Other types of print media include magazines, journals and books. Through evolution, a wide range of newspapers is available for people to choose from in the market. Traditionally, different kinds of newspapers include the tabloids and the broadsheets, each covering different kinds of news. The broadsheet however is the most intellectual of and most informative of the two, as it focuses of the real issues. Contrary to this, the tabloid majors on gossips, entertainment and celebrity as well as sports news. Even as people enjoy their daily reading from their favourite newspapers, may it be news, politics or advertisements, they are little knowledgeable of the evolutionary process that the newspapers have gone through. Some think that they just appeared, while others remain clueless. However, newspapers have an interesting history of their origin and evolution. In this paper, I trace the origin of the brilliant brain behind one of the worlds’ leading forms of mass media communica tion, Johannes Gutenberg. Historical arguments point out that the earliest form of a printed book known as the â€Å"Diamond Sutra† was printed in China in 868 CE. Some historians however argue that this book was printed earlier than this. The truth is not verifiable. However, the man behind this great invention was Johannes Gutenberg, a goldsmith and a businessman from the mining town of Mainz in southern Germany. Research reveals that Johannes Gutenberg  borrowed money, which he invested in his invention. Luckily, his success drastically changed the world of printing. His earliest form of printing machine, the printing press, was made of replaceable or movable letters that were either wooden or metallic. According to Childress (2008), after a long struggle of trial and error, Gutenberg  completed the machine in 1440. There is an amusing story about how the idea occurred to Johannes. One day, as Johannes sat by the window reading a book chained to the reading table, he c ould not help from smiling at the wonderful ideas that the book contained. Outside, rain was pouring heavily, banging on the window. Suddenly, he felt angered by the precious nature of books then. Disgustingly, he shook his head, and vowed to look for a way that would reduce the value of books and enable people handle them in a different way. This incidence was the beginning of a research that led to the birth of the printing press, subsequently marking the start of mass reproduction of books. However, what benefited the most from this invention was the mass production of newspapers as a form of mass communication. Hundreds of years ago, the only means in which people could write books was by way of handwriting. There was no form of printing or publishing presses available for interested parties to exploit. Due to the rareness of the books, it prompted their chaining to the reading tables as a measure to prevent people from taking them away. Estimated cost of a book then was the cos t of a town house (Childress, 2008). Johannes was born in the year 1398 in Mainz Germany, but later moved to Strasbourg in 1428, escaping the rivalry that existed between the rich and the townspeople. He came from a very rich and powerful family as his father was a jeweller and a goldsmith working at the Mainz Mint. Starting his life as a goldsmith himself, Johannes learnt tips that would latter help him in his invention. Although he fell in love and went ahead to propose to Ennelin zu der Iserin Thure, he changed his mind along the way and broke

Over exceeding nutrients Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Over exceeding nutrients - Research Paper Example Moreover, high-saturated fat content have some side effects on the heart. Hunter avers that taking a balanced diet while being pregnant is important, but over exceeding or lack of nutrients causes severe damage and complications. Underweight or obese expectant women experience numerous difficulties while conceiving. Some of the nutrients that should be included in the diet in sustainable amounts include energy, protein, fibre, Folic acid, iron, vitamin A, C, D and calcium. Iannotti, Lora, Kenda Cunningham, and Marie Ruel. Improving Diet Quality and Micronutrient Nutrition: Homestead Food Production in Bangladesh. Washington, D.C: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), 2009. A home gardening program, Homestead Food Production (HFP), is described by the authors. The article indicates that the program has lead to an increase in the production of the macronutrient food and reduces the rate of nutritional diseases. According to Kohler, heat does not reduce the rate of nutrition unless it exceeds the optimum levels. Additionally, oxidation makes nutrition a bit less. For example: an apple that was cut in half and oxidized for an hour is different than if it was cut for about 2 hours. Martinez asserts that most people are oblivious about lack of enough nutrients in the body while ignoring the fact that excess of the nutrients in the body has profound detrimental impact on the health of the body. Consumption of excess calories leads to the accumulation of high amounts of fats leading to disorders such as heart disease, depression, cancer, sleep apnea, type 2 Diabetes and stroke. Excess proteins increase the risk of osteoporosis. Excess vitamins can lead to various defects such as birth defects in the unborn babies in the case of excess vitamin while excess vitamin B-6 can cause excess nerve damage. Some of the disorders

The link between leadership style, communicator competence nd employee Essay

The link between leadership style, communicator competence nd employee satisfaction - Essay Example Thus for the need of a proper negotiation the communication competence of the supervisors is something that is readily required. Before focusing on the main part of the study there is the need for the discussion of certain key terms of communicator competence, leadership, and communication satisfaction along with job satisfaction. (Madlock, p 61) Communicator competence- The concept of communicator competence encompasses the elements of skills, knowledge, as well as behavior that are able in motivating individuals and prove its effectiveness. Maintenance of certain interpersonal norms along with conversational appropriateness forms the embedded part of competent interactions. (Madlock, p 62) Leadership- the quality of leadership has been best defined as the ability of an individual to influence and guide the team members in achieving the shared goals. (Madlock, p 64) Communication Satisfaction- the satisfaction that an individual employee gains from the daily conversations occurring in that particular organization along with its various aspects is what is referred to as the communication satisfaction of the employee.

Popular Culture Media Representation and the Construction of Social Essay

Popular Culture Media Representation and the Construction of Social Reality ( See questionsessay thesis below) - Essay Example Under this, again, we have sub-categories as well. Therefore, media diverges into various streams that operate under different conditions and specifications. And very evidently, each of them has a varied mode of consensus containment. The print media, which comes in the form of magazines, newspapers, journals and the like, operates on a more manual mode of obtaining consensus. They attempt to perhaps, try and attach importance to each individual's opinion, by resolving differences that might arise. For instance, they rely on public polls and even letters to the editor. The public can w rite in opinions and the media does try to present a consensus of the majority opinion, if not that of the entire masses. However, one major disadvantage of this media is the fact that in achieving consensus, it does omit those who have no access to reading material and the illiterate or uneducated. The broadcast media, consisting of television and radio, is more open to anyone who can voice their opinions. It need not have to be restricted to only the educated.

Terms of contract Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Terms of contract - Essay Example This is one of the expressed terms of the agreement. The terms of any contract define the obligations and promises in the contract. A party who fails to abide by the agreed terms of a contract is said to have breached the contract. Thus, if a term is breached the innocent party will invariably have a remedy for breach. However, it is necessary to classify terms because of the way the law deals with any breach not fulfilling the specified requirements of a particular term. Any term which is important or goes to the root of the contract is called a condition, see Poussard v Spiers.1 Less important terms which does not go to the root of the contract is called warranties, Bettini v Gye.2 The consequential difference of the distinction is that a breach of condition gives rise to the possibility of repudiating the contract and claiming damages, although the injured party can carry on with the contract and claim damages rather than getting out of the contract altogether, whereas, a breach o f warranty gives the right to claim damages only. In the present case the intention of the parties as to the use of Welsh plate is not clearly shown or expressed as a condition or warranty by the parties. ... tted that the court is likely to find here that the Church has not been deprived substantially of the whole benefit because although welsh slate was not used the finished look was the same as the original 15th century roof and just as durable. See, Investors Compensation Scheme Ltd v West Bromwich Building Society4, here Lord Hoffmann set out five principles on the interpretation of contractual documents. I advise the Church to claim damages. Second, with regard to the Issue of half replacement of the benches by Fixit, it might be possible for the Church to repudiate the contract with Fixit. In that if an obligation is entire (replace all the Benches) then it must be completely performed or the other party will be entitled to refuse to perform his side of the contract.5 Fixit could argue that the contract is divisible and as such be paid on quantum merit. However, the Court of Appeal in Darkin v Lee6 stated that there is a material difference between work that was abandoned and work which was completed badly. It was stated in the case that where a builder has supplied work and labour for the creation or repair of a house under a lump sum contract, but has departed from the terms of the contract, he is entitled to recover for his services, unless (1) the work that he has done has been of no benefit to the owner; (2) the work that he has done is entirely different from the work which he has contracted to do; or (3) he has abandoned the work and left it unfinished. It follows therefore that Fixit abandoned the work for another more lucrative work, and as such will not be able to recover anything and may further be liable for any necessarily incurred expenses and damages as a result. As Fixit has expressly or impliedly let the Reverend know before the time of completion is

Importing & Exporting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Importing & Exporting - Essay Example ge rates.1The problem arises when future payments or remunerations payable in a foreign currency depreciate in value before the foreign currency payment is received and is exchanged into the local currency of the firm. This problem can make or break an exporter’s profit base. It is not that an unexpected increase or decrease in the foreign currency may not be profitable and will always cause a loss. But this entire uncertainty hampers businesses and overall economic growth. There are two kinds of markets within the foreign exchange market: One is the Spot market which involves forex payments for exports delivered with in two or three days as the rates are quoted in line with the exchange rate prevalent at the time of the transaction.2The other kind of market is the forward or future market which concerns the delivery of exchange rate payments for exports to be delivered with in 3 days or more. Here the banks will use the forex rate on which they are willing to buy or sell the currency with in a month or more after the transaction.3 It can be seen that due to the volatile and unpredictable nature of the forex markets during times of political or economic crisis both the export markets carry a considerable risk for the multinational firms.There are of course a number of export marketing channels which can become good strategies to combat the foreign exchange risks and transaction exposure for an export firm. Firstly a firm can opt for Transferring exposure.This will involves the transfer of the transaction exposure to another company through the technique asking them to pay for a product in your currency so that they have to bear the transaction exposure resulting from forex uncertainty on their own. Another technique would be to price the export in the local currency of the other firm and demand payment immediately in which case the current spot rate will determine the value in your own currency of the export.4The other way of using an export payment

Summary of Gender Quality and Race Relations Essay

Summary of Gender Quality and Race Relations - Essay Example nous people, or women start to win significant seats, legislative dynamics transform since newcomers may require scarce political resources that certain class of people controls. For instance, in case of a political party, the incumbents have incentives to limit the newcomers from accessing the resources because they want to protect their personal interests. In turn, the new group is locked out of the legislative process in the sense that they are not fully incorporated. The authors assert that newcomer groups like women are denied full representation via different means. For instance, traditionally dominant group use chamber-level constraints to frustrate the newcomers in the sense that they are challenged to get seats proportionally to their numbers in the house or chamber. Other methods traditional dominant groups use to sideline women in legislature include control over committee assignments where the party leaders decide who fills the seat, legislative experience, party ideology , individual-level and party-level constraint, and structure of the committee system. In this paper, the authors discuss the existence of inequality in Latin America. The authors argue that the traditional question of the discipline regarding the distribution of power and resources still haunts the continent. This is because the question of who gets what and why has never been answered. The authors assert that in Latin American the allocation and distribution of services, goods, and basic opportunities is unequal since some few individual control the resources. The authors have discovered that the inequality that exists in Latin America is a problem created by the continents leaders since top 5% of the Latin American income ladder gets twice the comparable share of their OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) partners while the bottom gets half of what they would in those same countries. In turn, this distributive model has led to marginalization of some

Types of exploratory research designs Essay Example for Free

Types of exploratory research designs Essay 2. What type of exploratory research designs would you suggest for each of the following situations? Justify your answers using specific illustrations and examples. a. The research and development director of Louis Vuitton suggests a new type of cologne for men that could be promoted by tennis celebrity Marat Safin. b. The General Manager of Thai Spices Restaurant in Hong Kong wishes to offer customers two new and exciting dinner items that would be a blend of fresh durians, herbs and chicken. c. A retail manager would like to know the popularity of a new brand of dishwashing detergent produced by Proctor and Gamble. a) In developing a research design for this particular situation, it would first be a consideration that Louis Vuitton is not an established force in the fragrance market. Vuitton must enter this field relying on the transfer of its superb reputation in current areas of production to the new endeavour. Can the product be successful? Using the Case Study Method would be suitable in answering this question. It may be advisable to explore the success of other companies who have attempted similar campaigns. For example, Tommy Hilfiger (another fashion designer) has attempted and succeeded in entering this market. It would be worthwhile to analyse the past successes and failures of similar companies and use the information in developing the new product. In the further stages of research it would be effective to use focus group interviews to gauge consumer reaction to the product and its prospective face of endorsement. It must be determined if potential customers feel they would be drawn to buy a fragrance created by Vuitton and what characteristics are important in influencing their purchasing decision (eg. Price, Packaging, Place and Promotion). It would be important to determine how the consumer feels about the promotion of the product by Marat Safin. It  is quite possible for example, that the participants of a focus group may feel that the luxurious, prestigious image of Louis Vuitton may slightly clash with the athletic image of Safin. In which case it would be advisable to use the young, attractive, marketable celebrity image of Safin to promote the product and make no link to Safins tennis career. Examples of this can be seen in the promotion of Tag Heuer watches by Mark Philippoussis. In advertising the products there is no connection made between Mark and tennis. It must also be noted that time must be taken to discuss the particulars of the product itself as products cannot survive on endorsement alone as displayed by the past failure of Michael Jordans cologne. Projective Techniques such as a Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) may be useful to use during the focus group(s). Various visual presentations of Safin and/or the cologne can be made to the participants and feedback can be used in further research and development. As the product research matures and the target audience is now more defined, it would at this stage perhaps be beneficial to conduct depth interviews with potential future customers to provide more direction for the development process. b) The General Manager would benefit from first conducting several experience surveys. Asking informed experts about this particular research problem would be invaluable. It must first be established that the recipes are possible and compatible with the restaurant. Interviewing the head chef regarding this matter should answer such questions. It may then be advisable to ask other chefs from other restaurants for their thoughts and feedback on the matter. For example, durians are notorious for smelling terrible; this factor may lead chefs to suggest the ingredient to be quite unpopular. Finally, if the research process gets this far, it would be advisable to survey the most qualified experts of all; the customer (who is always right and is also the most qualified when it comes to assessing their own appetites). If the experience surveys suggest the addition to the menu to be acceptable it may then be advantageous to gauge consumer reaction before investing large sums of time and money into the project. This may be done with a  simple observational study. For example, offering free samples of the food in question to existing customers will provide valuable insight into popular opinion. c) To gain a better, in-depth appreciation of the marketing environment or consumption behaviour with regard to the new brand of detergent it may first be logical to examine any available secondary data. Analysis of such data may give a very clear indication of the brands popularity. As the product is already in circulation, sales information and other related figures may be extremely useful in determining the brands current market status. Experience Surveys may prove effective in this situation as well. There are many opportunities for experience surveys in this particular marketing problem. Anyone from a company executive to a product merchandiser can provide useful experience and knowledge that can benefit the research. Management can be probed for information obtained overseeing the overall operation of selling the product, whilst sales representatives can be questioned about their experience in dealing with front-line sales. Buying trends can also be measured by interviewing individuals outside the organisation; such as wholesalers and retails who can provide very accurate information and figures regarding popularity (ie. sales). Focus groups can also be used in this situation to measure consumer reaction, indeed focus groups are used in the greater majority of all marketing research. As usual the focus group allows the discovery of new ideas, consumer insight, and hidden motivations. A focus group provides direct, undistorted communication from the consumer to the manufacturer. Thoughts and feelings regarding attributes such as the detergents price, quality and general image can be recorded and used in further development if deemed necessary. REFERENCES David Eccles School of Business [Online], Available: http://www.business.utah.edu/~pmkthl/5 [2004, Apr. 14] McDaniel, C. Gates, R. 2002, Marketing Research, South Western, Cincinnati Zikmund, W. G. 2003, Exploring Marketing Research, South Western, Mason

Feral Children: Cases and Learning Development

Feral Children: Cases and Learning Development Feral children, wild child, gazelle boy, undomesticated; these are all names that have been given to children throughout the decades defined as A child who is raised without human contact, often raised by wild animals as a result of being abandoned. This is indeed a fact in history that these children exist. There are so many stories, examples and cases of feral children raised by animals in history. Examples like Victor The Wild Boy , Kamala and Amala sisters raised by a wolf, and Robert who was raised by monkeys in Uganda. It is incredible that these children were able to survive. How did they manage to stay alive, and at what cost to their humanity? Are they ever able to gain what they did not learn when integrated back into society? This is a cruel way to treat a little child, either with abuse or even just negligence to care for the child. Today feral children could be defined as any human child suffering from sensory deprivation and can be caused by their own parents. Today the y can be children who have grown up with very little contact or none at all. Feral Children explore the boundaries of environmental factors on human beings, how they develop to become what society deems to be a respectable human and the overall influences of nature versus nurture paralleled to unconditional love and the surrounding of other humans. Many cases of feral children have occurred over several centuries. These children were isolated for so long and to a point where they do not know English or have not even seen another human being. Tales of children living and surviving in the wild, brought up by animals are almost too unbelievable to be true. Feral children are kids who have been confined with little to no human contact. Sometimes they live and survive on their own, or they have been raised by animals. Many cases prove that these feral children are not just some made up tale, but real life children living without any speech or knowledge of what is happening to them. There are many effects that occur to these children from being cut off from the real world. They include learning animal behaviours and possibly never learning to speak. Some of the children became super fast runners at times on all fours, some even covered with hair. Feral children s senses were often more developed than those of children living with hum ans, particularly their sense of smell and hearing. Various children found in the wild could adapt easily to changes in temperature and tolerate more pain. You may need to site some of this information, where did you get the facts? Many people believe that these stories of children raised by animals are just that, stories made up by writers and people with vivid imaginations. This is not true; there are many documented cases of these children. In January of 1799, a young boy with no clothes on was spotted outside a small town of France, near Aveyron. This boy was named Victor, and was around the age of eleven or twelve. Victor behaved like an animal, he ate rotten food with pleasure, he was incapable of distinguishing hot from cold, and he spent much of his time rocking back and forth like a caged animal He lived with a scientist named Dr. Jean-Marc Gaspard Itard. He was dedicated to the education of the young boy trying to get him to be able to speak. Victor made little progress in all these areas and was only able to perform small tasks, such as setting a table. Eventually scientists lost funding for Victor and he was sent to live with a housekeeper. Victor died at the age of 40 in 1828. In a more modern version of feral children is the story of the Romulus and Remus, two young girls who were discovered under the care of a she-wolf in 1920, in Godamuri, India. In order to get to the girls the wolf defended the two girls like they were her own babies, but the wolf was killed because it was attacking the men trying to save the two girls. The two girls were Kamala who was aged eight and Amala aged only 18 months old. The two girls would sleep all day and wake up at night, remained only on all fours, liked eating raw meat, and would bite or growl at people bothering them. They worked with these girls for a long time to try and find out as much as possible about feral children. Amala only lived for a year until she died but Kamala lived for nine more years until she passed away of illness. Kamala did learn a small vocabulary and eventually learned how to walk up right, but still had a good sense of sight in the dark and of raw meats at a great distance. A feral child does not have to be a story about a lost child raised by an animal. Many cases of abused or forgotten children have come up over time. Stories such as kids being found tied to toilets or locked in a basement, some kids forced to live in a dog house because their parents are too drunk to remember them. Genie was a 13 year old girl when police took custody of her on November 25th, 1970. Genie was found only because her mother had applied for welfare and prior to this no one knew she even existed. She would be strapped to a toilet in an empty room where her parents kept her. Also was forced to sleep in a sleeping bag that was way to small for her, genie now has deformed legs because of this. She was kept in such isolation that she couldn t talk or understand people. She could only make small grunts or moans if she needed something, she could also mumble the words no more . She was kept in her room for 10 years because her father thought she was mentally challenged as a baby. Genie had very limited socialization and she was abused for making noise which stunted her ability to communicate. They formed a group of scientists and social workers to help Genie have a normal life; this was later called The Genie Project. They worked with Genie for many years with little progress. Eventually they lost funding for her and she had to be sent to live in many foster homes were she was abused again. She currently lives in California with her foster parents. Another case of this kind of abuse emerged from the Ukrainians, a girl named Oxona Malaya who was found living in a farm kennel. Oxana s parents were both alcoholics and did not care for her well being. This is the reason why she decided to sleep in the kennel with the dogs at such a young age. For six years she was raised by dogs, not having any human contact. Oxona would walk on all fours, bark at people, and pant like a normal dog would. Oxana did not know what a mirror was and showed no recognition of the reflected image of her. This lack of self-awareness makes her, in some respects, more like an animal than a human. These two cases show people what abusing a child can do to then. As She was growing up and learning how to speak, they discovered in a brain scan that Oxana was mentally challenged because of her time spent with the dogs, if she was just raised like a normal girl she could of a had a normal childhood growing up, instead she has to live in a foster home. This is the reason why most children are abandoned or forgotten about, because parents do not want to have a mentally challenged child. She could have lived a normal life if her parents just cared a little more to pay more attention, but now she has to grow up learning how to talk and walk like a normal human being. In a small village in Uganda in 1982 a little boy named John Sebunnya was found living in a tree with monkeys. He ran away from home at the age three because of the abuse he took from his parents, also his parents didn t bother looking for where John ran away. He tells his story to this day of what happened in the little English he knows. Many different councilors and scientists have sat down with him asking about his time living with the monkeys. Different aspects of his story stick out to scientists that make them wonder if this was just a case of the monkeys tolerating the boy. They would just let him eat whatever was left and never cleaned him as they would other monkeys. When it came to cleaning time for the monkeys, they would never clean John, and he said that he would just watch as they pulled bugs from each other s fur. This information made scientists think that the monkeys didn t actually take care of John but just accepted him in the group. Throughout our history, our soc iety has tested the theory of nature vs. nurture. Some scientists believe that we are predisposed according to our genetics on how we behave. This is known as the nature theory. Other scientists believe that we behave in a certain way because of how we are taught. This is known as the nurture theory. One topic sociologists have studied is feral children to help explain these theories. They have found that children raised by animals acquired the instincts and behaviors of the species that raised them. The study of these feral children and children who are raised or kept in extreme isolation makes it hard not to support the nurture theory or statement. These cases prove the importance of education in our society and They show that human beings not only can be educated, but must be educated to become a human being at all. Everything that a child knows or learns must be taught; except for normal body functions like breathing or reflexes. Abilities that determine a child s success in school do not happen automatically they must be developed or nurtured . Children also learn how to be friendly, thankful, honest, trustful and respectful. All these skills must be learned and fostered. Psychologists and Scientists have studied feral children to help them gain insight into human socialization and development. By helping these children with human like abilities due to what they were going through as children. When feral children are discovered and returned to society, they often remain significantly developmentally delayed. Researchers are still trying to answer the question whether these children were already delayed or their abnormalities occurred because of their isolation in the wild. So what makes u s human? Is it society or is it instilled within us? Babies do grow into adults physically, but our social beliefs and ideas are not transferred in our DNA. Even though our bodies may grow, if we are isolated we become little more than an animal. In order for children to develop into well rounded human beings, they must be surrounded by people that care for them and people that will teach them language and how to walk. Through the stories of the feral children whether true or not, it leaves us wondering what makes us human? Feral children are human biologically but their emotions are limited to what they learned in the wild. These children will now never know right from wrong, or even what their own name is, but it goes to show the little attention a child gets makes a big impact on that child in the future. Children need love and protection from other human beings in order to grow up and develop into a human being themselves. The young age these children get lost at or when there f orgotten is the age the child s brain is growing, when they learn speech and ability to walk. It shows us how important it is for children to have the influence of another human to learn and love from. The nurture you give a child as a baby is what gives that child human like behaviors, nurturing a child can last a life time.

Environmental Impacts of Batteries

Environmental Impacts of Batteries Introduction: In this report we plan to research, compare and analyse the different types, manufacturers and environmental impacts of batteries so as to determine whether or not there is one battery that is superior to the rest and if so, how it is superior. In order to do this, however, we must first understand more about batteries. Therefore, we will first investigate how a battery works, as well as primary and secondary cells and recharge and discharge cycles. Research must also be done into the different manufactures of batteries within South Africa. Once we have a fuller understanding of the basics, we will be able to analyse in more detail the characteristics of different types of batteries, in this case focusing on the most popular ones. We will also look into how these batteries impact the environment whether it is in a positive or negative way and how we can properly dispose of these batteries so as to reduce any harm they may inflict, both on the environment and humankind. What is a Battery? A battery consists of a multiple number of electrochemical cells linked together, which converts chemical energy to electrical energy by means of self-sustaining spontaneous electrode reactions in order to produce an electrical current when connected to a closed circuit. Each electrochemical cell comprises of two half cells which contain an electrode and an electrolyte. The two half cells are connected by a salt bridge in order to create ionic contact for the two electrolytes for the free movement of ions and to prevent the electrolytes from mixing in the case of two different solutions being used, which would cause unwanted side reactions. An example of a salt bridge would be a strip of filter paper which has been soaked in a solution of potassium nitrate. Other means of separation of electrolytes include the use of gel solutions and porous pots. In the majority of modern, commercial batteries, a different electrolyte is used in each half cell, and to prevent mixing, a porous separator is used which only allows the passing through of ions. The electrolyte of the two half cells is a solution which is capable of conduction of electricity due to the presence of free negatively and positively charged ions. In one of the half cells, positively charged ions (cations) are attracted to the cathode (positive electrode); while in the other half cell, negatively charged ions (anions) are attracted to the anode (negative electrode). In the redox reactions which cause the conversion from chemical energy to electrical energy, oxidation (loss of electrons) occurs at the anode to the negatively charged electrons; and reduction (gain of electrons) occurs at the cathode to the positively charged electrons. Illustration of a Redox reaction The electrochemical cell produces an electromotive force (emf) and is the difference in voltage between the two electrodes. For example, if the one electrodes voltage is 3V and the other electrodes voltage is 1V, the net emf of the cell is 2V. Primary and Secondary Cells: Batteries are classified into two main groups: Primary batteries irreversibly convert chemical energy to electrical energy (once the initial supply of reactants has been used up, the electrochemical reaction cannot be reversed by inducing an electrical current and thus the energy cannot be restored to the cell). Secondary batteries can be recharged by reversing the electrochemical reaction by inducing an electrical current. Primary Cell: A primary cell is any type of battery of which the chemical reactions are irreversible the chemical reactants cannot be restored and thus a primary cell has to be discarded once it is depleted. Primary batteries come into use for when long periods of time in storage are needed as a primary batteries are constructed to have lower self-discharge rates than secondary batteries, so all of the capacity is available when in need for useful purposes. Devices that require a small amount of current for a long period of time also use primary batteries as the self-discharge current of secondary batteries would exceed the load current and cut down service time to a few days or weeks (eg, a torch must work when needed, even if it has been on a shelf for a considerably long period of time. Primary cells are also more cost-efficient in such a case, since secondary batteries would use only a small percentage of available recharge cycles. Reserve batteries are capable of achieving a very long storage time (ten years or more) without the loss of capacity, by physically separating the components of the battery and only assembling them again at times of use. However, such batteries are expensive. When in use, primary batteries become polarized (hydrogen builds up at the cathode and in turn reduces the effectiveness of the battery. In order to remove the hydrogen, a depolarizer is used. Depolarizers can be mechanical, chemical, or electrochemical. Although previous attempts have been made to create self-depolarizing cells by roughening the surface area of the copper plate to encourage the hydrogen bubbles to detach, they have had a large failure rate. Examples of primary cells: Alkaline cell Aluminium cell Lithium cell Mercury cell Zinc-carbon cell Secondary batteries: A secondary battery is cell of which the chemical reactions can be reversed and therefore energy can be restored to the cell. This is done by connecting the cell to an electrical current. The electricity initiates non-spontaneous redox reactions in order to restore the chemical reactants. Secondary cells, when purchased, could not be used immediately and would have to be recharged before use. Although today, most secondary cells are created with lower self-discharge rates, allowing the purchaser to use the battery immediately as the battery already holds about 70% of the stated capacity. The energy used in charging secondary batteries mainly comes from AC current using an adapter unit. Many battery chargers take several hours to recharge a battery. Most batteries are capable of being recharged in a much smaller amount of time than what most commercial, simple battery chargers are capable of. Although a few companies are producing chargers that are able to recharge AA and AAA size NiMH batteries in just 15 minutes, high rates of charging (15 minutes to 1 hour) will cause long term damage to NiMH and most other rechargeable batteries. Secondary batteries are susceptible to damage by means of reverse charging if they are fully discharged. Also, attempting to recharge primary batteries possesses a small chance of causing an explosion of the battery. Flow batteries, which are not commonly used by consumers, are recharged by replacing the electrolyte liquid of the cell(s). The technical notes of battery companies often refer to VPC. VPC means volts per cell, and refers to the individual secondary cells making up the battery (eg, to charge a 12V battery which contains six cells of 2V each at 2.3 VPC, needs a voltage of 13.8V across the terminals of the battery). Most NiMH AA and AAA batteries rate their cells at 1.2V. However, this is not a relatively large problem in most devices as alkaline batteries voltage drops as the energy is expended. Most devices are constructed to continue to operate at a reduced voltage between 0.9V and 1.1V. Industrial secondary cells are used in grid energy storage applications for load leveling, where electrical energy is stored and is used for the duration of peak load periods, as well as for renewable energy purposes such as the storage of electrical energy which has been generated from photovoltaic arrays (solar panels) during the day to be used in the evening. By recharging cells or batteries during periods when demand for power is low and then returning the energy to the system (or grid) during periods when the demand for power is high, load-leveling aids to eliminate needs for extremely expensive power plants and also eases the cost of generators over a greater period of operation. Discharge and Recharge Cycles in Batteries: Recharge and discharge cycles The purpose of a cell is to store energy and release it at the given time in a contained manner; however, only secondary cells can be recharged. The electrochemical reaction that occurs in the fluid electrolyte of a wet (secondary) cell is reversible, unlike dry or primary cells; this allows the charge to be restored. The three most popular types of rechargeable batteries that are found today are nickel-based (NiCd NiMH), lithium-ion and lead-based cells. C-rate C-rate is the measurement of the charge and discharge current of a cell. Almost all transportable cells are rated at 1 Coulomb (1C). This means that a 1000mAh battery, if discharged at 1C, would give 1000mA for one hour. The same applies if the discharge was halved (0.5C) this would provide half the amount of current (500mA) for twice the duration (2 hours). A 1C cell is referred to as an hour discharge, the most common portable cell we have is the 20-hour Lead-based discharge cells (0.05C) found in cars. Lead-Acid Cells The C-rate of a lead-acid cell is not set to a constant like other cells, as achieving 100% capacitance at any discharge rate is difficult. The offset is done in order to compensate for the varying measurements at the differing currents; automatically adjusting the capacity of the cell is discharged at a higher/lower C-rate than originally thought. Portable lead-based cells are rated at 0.05C given a 20-hour discharge. The offset is represented in Peukerts law. Peukerts law: represents the capacitance of a lead-acid cell in terms of C-rate. As the rate of discharge increases, the batterys available capacity decreases and vice-versa. Fast and slow discharging/recharging of a lead-acid cell At the beginning of when a lead-acid cell is charged or discharged, the chemicals present in the acid electrolyte at the point between the positive and negative electrodes (the interface) are affected. The change in these chemicals, results in a charge that is formed at the interface. This interface charge eventually spreads throughout the active material in the volume. Fast charging a completely discharged cell for a couple of minutes causes the charge to develop near the interface of the battery, when left for duration of time (Â ± a couple of hours) the charge spreads throughout the volume of the cell, meaning the interface charge of the cell is too low for the cell to actually function. Likewise, if the cell is discharged quickly it will appear to be dead but it has only lost its interface charge. Meaning after a few minutes wait, it should be able to function. If the battery is charged slowly, over a long duration of time, then it will become more fully charged (than that of a fast charge). This is as a result of the interface charge having more time to redistribute itself into the volume of the electrodes and acid electrolyte, as well as itself (the interface charge) being recharged. In addition, if the cell is being discharged slowly, then when the battery appears to be has died it most likely has been fully discharged. Depth of discharge of Lead-acid batteries The depth of discharge (DOD) of a cell is the percentage of the batterys current that it is discharged per hour. The optimum temperature a battery should be charged/discharged is around 25Â °C (77Â °F), anything higher and up until 50Â °C (122Â °F), is tolerable. The cycle life of lead-acid batteries is exactly proportional to the depth of its discharges. Â ±200 cycles after battery discharged fully (100% DOD) Â ±500 cycles after battery partial discharge (50% DOD) 1000+ cycles after battery shallowly discharged (DOD) Lead-acid batteries are charged not be discharged over 1.75V/cell, nor should it be stored in a discharged state. The cells of a discharged lead-acid sulfate, a condition that renders the battery useless if left in that state for a few days. Always keep the open terminal voltage at 2.10V and higher. Charge and discharging of lithium- ion cells Discharging Lithium-ion batteries only works within the temperature limit of -20Â °C to 60Â °C (-4Â °F to 140Â °F). The chemical reaction is reversed within the battery and the current flow is carried from the negative to the positive electrode by the movement of Li+ ions, through the non-aqueous electrolyte. The cycle life of lithium-ion batteries is directly related to the batterys depth of discharge, the higher the capacity of discharge, the less number of cycles it can go through. Charging Lithium-ion cells requires an external electrical power source (charger) that applies a higher voltage but of equal difference (normally 4.05V/cell) to that developed by the batterys own chemistry. This causes the current to flow in the opposite direction, meaning the lithium ions migrate from the cathode to the anode, and they become intercalated in the porous electrode material of the cell, thereby replenishing its charge. Charge and discharge cycles in nickel- based batteries (NiCd NiMH) The reliability as well as longevity of Nickel-based batteries hinges, predominantly, on the quality of the charger. Nickel- based cells should always remained cool when being charged as elevated temperatures shortens battery life. A rise in temperature cannot be avoided due to the chemical reaction in the nickel-based cells, yet in order to be charged properly the spike in temperature has to be as short as possible. If the temperature of the battery remains higher than room temperature for an ample amount of time, the battery should be removed, as it is not being charged correctly Nickel-based batteries can be charged at several different rates using a variety of chargers: Slow charger of nickel- based cells take between 14-16 hours at a fixed charge of 0.1C (1/10 of nickel cells 1C capacity) this however causes crystalline formation within the cell, this causes the subsequent drop in voltage at that point in its charge cycle where recharging began, as if the cell is being discharged Rapid Charger of nickel-based cells takes between 3-6 hours to fully charge, this charger switches the cell to trickle charge (charging with a very small current) when it is ready. Fast charger of nickel-based cells takes approximately one hour to charge the battery; this is the preferred way to charge nickel-based cells as it reduces crystalline formation or memory within the battery however, the battery is at a higher risk of overcharging, which can damage the battery. However all new Nickel-based batteries should be trickle-charged for a day before being used as this ensures that all cells are equally charged within the battery. Nickel Metal-hydride batter The charging voltage of NiMH ranges between 1.4-1.6 V/cell fully charged and 1.25 V/cell during discharge, down to about 1.0-1.1 V/cell Nickel cadmium battery The charging voltage of NiCd is between 1.3 -1.4V per cell when fully charged and about 0.8-1 V when discharged If the nickel-based batteries are discharged at a rate higher than 1c, the end of discharge point is lower than 0.9V a cell. This compensates for the voltage drop at higher temperatures induced by the internal resistance of the cell also other factor which contribute to the drop (iring, contact etc) the lower point produces better capacity readings for the nickel-based cells when discharging at lower temperatures. South African companies that manufacture batteries The Willard Battery Company is a fully owned South African company that manufactures motor vehicle batteries and is located in Roodepoort, Port Elizabeth. The main types of cell they manufacture are SLI lead-acid batteries for use in powering the starter motor, lights, and the ignition system of a cars engine. First National battery is a battery manufacturer that came about after the merger of four smaller battery-manufacturing companies (First national battery, Raylight, Oldham and Chloride). Their main products are SLI lead-acid batteries used in vehicles (passenger and commercial), mono-block lead-alloy batteries used in railways, lead-alloy cells (deep-cycle, RR, tubular and Solar) used for as standby reserve batteries in marine vehicles and as well solar batteries. Deltec Power Distributors is a South African distributor of a wide variety local and internationally produced high quality Lead-calcium car batteries and standalones, since 1979. SABAT Batteries is part of Powertech Batteries, a branch of the Altron Group South Africa. SABATSs main operations include the manufacture and distribution of lead-acid cells, low-maintenance hybrid lead-calcium cells, and maintenance-free calcium and normal calcium batteries Dixon Premium batteries is South African company founded in 1953 and is based in Vereeninging Johannesburg. Their main product is a 12-volt SMF lead-acid cell for use in motor (and/or other) vehicles. Free Start Power is a Local company that manufactures SLI lead-acid batteries for the use in vehicles (commercial, passenger and aquatic) The Most Popular Types of Battery: The three most common and more popularly used types of batteries are the lithium-ion battery (examples are in notebook computers and medical devices), nickel-based batteries (such as in two way-radios and power-tools in the nickel-cadmium battery and laptop computers and mobile phones in the nickel-metal-hydride battery), and of course the lead-acid battery (mostly found in wheelchairs, emergency lighting system and cars). Nickel-cadmium Battery: The nickel-cadmium battery consists of a nickel (III) oxide- hydroxide (Ni(OH)3) plate as the positive electrode (the cathode), a cadmium plate as the negative electrode (the anode) and an alkaline electrolyte usually made from potassium hydroxide (KOH). There is also a separator that isolates the two electrode plates. These are all rolled into a spiral shape and enclosed in a casing using a metal, self-sealing plate (known as the jelly-roll design). This original cell design is what differentiates the nickel-cadmium battery from the older, more traditional alkaline cell. The structure of the nickel-cadmium cell allows more of the electrode to be in contact with the electrolyte, thus lowering the internal resistance of the battery and increasing the maximum current that can be delivered, whereas in the alkaline cell a graphite rod is placed in a casing filled with the electrolyte, resulting in a much smaller area of the electrode being in contact with the electrolyte. In a nickel-cadmium battery, the chemical reactions are as follows: Nickel electrode (cathode): 2NiO(OH) + 2H2O + 2e? 2Ni(OH)2 + 2OH? Cadmium electrode (anode): Cd + 2OH? Cd(OH)2 + 2e? Therefore, the net reaction in the cells of a nickel-cadmium battery is: 2NiO(OH) + Cd + 2H2O 2Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2 When a nickel-cadmium cell is tested on a device such as a cell phone, it typically produces a very low internal resistance: about 155 milli-Ohms (m?). This resistance is largely affected by the state of charge the battery is in. The resistance is highest during two stages: when there is a low charge and immediately after charging. Therefore, the maximum possible current is actually achieved after a period of rest after the battery has been charged, with the internal resistance varying between 100 to 200 milli-Ohms, with the cell emf ranging from 0.0 to 1.3V. Both the maximum current and the capacity of this cell are influenced by the internal resistance. As previously stated, the low resistance means that the nickel-cadmium cell can produce quite a high maximum current. The secondary cells that make up the nickel-cadmium battery each have a capacity of about 1.2 Volts; therefore a standard battery with a 7.2V capacity (6 cell pack) should produce around a 900 mA current without diminishing for a long period of time. This ability of the battery to provide a high current for extended periods makes it one of the most popular battery types. Nickel-metal-hydride Battery: The main (and possibly most distinguishing) difference between the nickel-metal-hydride battery and the nickel-cadmium battery is that the nickel-metal-hydride doesnt use any toxic metals. Where the nickel-cadmium battery uses cadmium to form the hydrogen-absorbing anode, this battery uses an electrode made from a metal-hydride, typically an alloy mixture of Lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, praseodymium and possible other rare-earth elements, as well as a metal that is usually cobalt, nickel, manganese and/or aluminium. This makes the metal-hydride anode an intermetallic compound. Lithium-ion Battery: The lithium-ion battery is one of the newest and fastest developing technologies in the battery world. As this cell was introduced to the public shortly after the nickel-metal-hydride battery, some believe that the nickel-metal-hydride cell was a crucial step in the development of the lithium-ion cell. In a lithium-ion cell, the electrodes (anode and cathode) are made from compounds which lithium can move through. When lithium is moved into the electrode it is called migration; when it moves out it is called extraction. The movement of the lithium, via the electrolyte, between the anode and the cathode depends on whether the cell is charging or discharging. The reason lithium-ion is used instead of lithium metal is that lithium metal is highly unstable when used in the batteries discharge and recharge cycles, making it very unsafe for conventional use. Therefore, this battery is a non-metallic battery. Lead-acid Battery: As the name suggests, this type of battery consists of two substances: Lead and an acid. There are two types of solid lead in the battery which form the two electrodes. The negative electrode (anode) is made from pure lead (Pb) while the positive electrode (cathode) is made from lead dioxide (PbO2). It is important to remember that lead has an oxidation number of 0, while lead dioxide is +4, as it is the change in these numbers due to the reaction in the cells that will cause a flow of electricity. The acid in the battery forms the electrolyte. This acid is the compound Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4), which is also mixed with water (H2O). This acid remains in the ionised form of two H+ protons and an SO42- ion. This is due to the fact that Sulfuric Acid will only lose one of its protons when it comes into contact with the water, saving the other for reaction with the lead on either electrode. When the two electrodes are placed into the electrolyte and the circuit is completed, both electrodes will begin to form a coating of lead sulfate (PbSO4) around the original compound. Therefore, we can draw up the half reactions that define the chemical process in a lead-acid battery. A typical, conventional lead-acid battery consists of a 6V pack, i.e. the battery has 6 cells in it, with each cell having a capacity of 2 Volts (emf is equal to approximately 2.041 V in each cell). The internal resistance depends on the maximum voltage that is currently flowing through the battery. In a fully charged 12.6 Volt lead-acid battery, the internal resistance is about 10 milliohms. This very low resistance results in the high maximum current that the battery can produce. However, unlike the nickel-cadmium battery, it can only produce this current for a very limited amount of time (200 to 300 cycles), after which the current will begin to diminish and internal resistance will begin to increase. The resistance is also affected by the number of cells in the battery, i.e. the more cells, the higher the joint internal resistance. The most common application of the lead-acid battery is the motorcar battery, also known as a lead-acid accumulator. This type of battery (usually 6V or 12V) uses a dynamo to recharge the battery and store energy while the car is turned off, so that it doesnt run flat. The Recycling and Disposal of Battery Components: Chelsey Moubray An electrical battery is a combination of one or more electrochemical cells, used to convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Where do you use batteries? Batteries form an essential part of everyday life. As consumers, we make regular use of these electrical units to perform a variety of different things. When speaking about small electronic items, batteries are the most common systems that are used to power things such as cameras, cellular phones, watches, laptops, remotes, most flashlights and many other household items. Every car is powered by an electrical car battery that enables mobility and these batteries are considered one of the most important purposes of batteries. Alkaline batteries are used to power these massive car batteries as well as radios, carbon-zinc batteries for childrens play toys and torches. Lithium is mainly used in batteries for things such as your camera, a calculator or your watch but sometimes mercury is also used for these various items. Mercury is also used for hearing aids, which are also powered by silver and zinc batteries. Batteries are a very important component in our day to day lives. To put it simply, they make everything a lot easier for us. Introducing a whole new spectrum of electronic appliances and equipment, we have easier ways to listen to music, know the time, travel faster and even listen without too much difficulty. To execute these functions we need to choose between two types of batteries that are used today; Primary Batteries and Secondary Batteries. A Primary battery is more commonly known as a disposable battery and can be used for portable devices that demand an immediate and direct current when switched on. The advantage for homes is that these batteries are easily accessed but can only be used once and must be thrown away after. The other battery is not only a better option for households but is also a healthier option for the environment*. These Secondary batteries are also know as rechargeable batteries, and must be charged before use. These batteries can be used many times, as they are rechargeable and perform the same job as a Primary battery. In conclusion, we use batteries in many different areas but mainly to power items that are a major part of everyday life. Like we are dependent on our cars and our watches for the time, we are therefore dependent on batteries. They form a large purpose in our lives and must use safely. In order to verify this safety we must learn to dispose of our batteries correctly. How do you dispose of batteries? To begin with, there are few standard procedures that should be followed when dealing with batteries. Never dispose of batteries in a fire source because it is likely that they will explode. Make sure never to place batteries in a group because if they contain even a small amount of power, when banged together they may release a charge that could result in them catching fire which can have devastating results. When it is apparent that a battery can no longer power its appliance, it must be removed immediately because it may leak. And lastly, never place a battery in a pocket because it may burst and cause another leakage. The first step to the adequate disposal of a battery is to place a powerless battery in some sort of container until you can correctly recycle it. Every battery is now considered to be hazardous waste. Because they contain very toxic metals such as Mercury, they have been classified as unsuitable to be thrown away as standard municipal solid waste. Batteries are not to be placed in communal dumps because there is a chance that these toxic metals can have a serious and perpetual effect on the surrounding environment.* Some of the batteries that are required to be accurately disposed of are batteries that can be found in; power tools, mobiles, various monitors, portable lamps, investigative electronic gear, flashlights etc. The new disposal requirement applies to all types and all sizes of batteries, including but not limited to: Alkaline, Nickel metal hydride (Ni-MH), Nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd), Silver button (Ag), Mercury (Hg), sealed lead acid (Pb), Wet lead acid, Carbon-zinc, and Lithium Ion. There are a number of standard alkaline batteries that are not classified as harmful and can be thrown away as regular household waste but it is recommended for the batteries containing lithium, mercuric, oxide, nickel-cadmium, nickel metal hydride and silver oxide to be recycled. Most recycling areas contain a department for electrical batteries but it is best to contact your municipality to find out where most suitable to go. As the renowned Duracell battery company stated, Proven cost-effective and environmentally safe recycling processes are not yet universally available for alkaline batteries. Some communities offer recycling or collections of alkaline batteries- contact your local government for disposal practices in your area. Impact of Batteries: What is the impact of batteries on humankind? Clearly there is both an adamant negative and positive impact of batteries on humankind. The basic positive impact is that everything is a lot easier for humans. There are numerous activities that have been made possible for us through the creation of batteries. For example: Car Batteries: Car batteries have made mobility possible. Without this invention we would never be able to depend on such a reliable, easily accessible and quick form of transport. The introduction of automobiles has made a hugely positive impact on human kind. Monitors: There are various types of monitors that are used today, one of the most common being the standard hospital heart monitor. These monitors are responsible for keeping people alive. As a source of education and examination, these have formed an incredibly vital part of the medical world. Watches: Without batteries we would never have portable clocks that can be used to easily access the time. Although not a compulsory essential, watches have been said to be one of the most important concepts on a small scale. As mentioned in the previous section, there are hundreds of other manufactured electronic creations that have been made possible by the introduction of batteries. These creations have formed a vital part in humankind development over the last few decades. Without the establishment of batteries, the mechanical world would never have progressed and reached the critical level that it has reached. Enabling huge scientific breakthroughs and discoveries, batteries have formed the foundation blocks of our society and continue to enable extensive studies and research. Although batteries have facilitated a large range of discoveries and activities, they also have a negative impact on humankind. One of the most prominent negative impacts is the dependency on electronic appliances. As a embryonic world we have developed over many centuries, beginning with a very rural state and growing into a mechanical industrial world highly dependent of technology. Included in this technology is the battery. As said before, as one of the foundation blocks of society, communities have become largely dependent on batteries for necessities such as transportation and work, but also less essential activities including entertainment and leisure. As a global community we have survived in circumstances far more extreme than today without the help of batteries and futuristic technology, so it is evident that although accommodating, batteries can be considered un

Title IX: Leveling the Playing Field Essay -- gender equity in sports

How does one define the success of a high school and college? Is it through standardized test scores, graduates, and college applicants? Is it through winning games and playing beyond the school? Yes, in fact it’s all of these things. America is based on freedom and equality. America is created with â€Å"Liberty and Justice for All†. America is only now starting to treat women as the equals they are. Although Title IX has improved athletic opportunities for women, the ratio of women to men athletic funds is uneven because of the revenue main stream men’s sports bring to the schools. As colleges grew in people and pride, football became the new sensation. With the predominant â€Å"football schools† nationwide, female athletic programs weren’t given much thought. Football provides the schools funding through its massive packed stands. The revenue made funneled back into the football programs and left little funding for any other sport, male or female. In 1972, the nation finally decided to make a stand, and force schools to create and sponsor other athletic teams for females, besides cheerleading and square dancing. Title IX was enacted in 1972 by President Richard Nixon. It â€Å"requires† gender equity for boys and girls in every educational program that is federally funded. Many people do not even know that Title IX exists, or if they do, that it applies to more than sports. However it applies to sports, access to higher education, career education, education for pregnant and parenting students, employment, learning environment, math and science, sexual harassment, standardized testing and technology. It forced schools to even the playing field and implement women’s sporting teams. Before Title IX, it was nearly impossible to get a f... ...011. Davis, Paula M. "Imagine Fund Will Offer Race and Gender-based Scholarships in Response to 2006 Anti-affirmative Action Law." MLive. Michigan Live LLC, 20 Aug. 2008. Web. 06 Feb. 2011. Grant, Christine. "A Title IX Presentation." Bailiwick. The University of Iowa Libraries, 25 Sept. 1995. Web. 10 Feb. 2011. Lopiano, Donna. "Title IX Q & A - Women's Sports Foundation." Title IX. Women's Sports Foundation, 26 May 2005. Web. 10 Feb. 2011. Rhode, Deborah L., and Christopher J. Walker. "Gender Equity in College Athletics: Women Coaches as a Case Study." NCAA. National College Athletics Association, 26 Mar. 2008. Web. 6 Feb. 2011. Weistart, John. "Equal Opportunity? Title IX and Intercollegiate Sports." Wilson Web, Fall 1998. Web. 2 Feb. 2011. "Christine Grant | Sports Management Resources." Our Consultants. Sports Management Resources. Web. 10 Feb. 2011.

Bush A= Plan :: essays research papers

Bush A+ Plan Lieutenant Governor Brogan and Governor Bush fought for approval of what they called, the Bush/Brogan A+ Plan for education. This was a comprehensive system of school reform. They believed that each student should gain one years of knowledge with one year of school. They also believed that no student should be left behind. These are the principals that the plan was built upon. In order for them to be assured that a student gained a years knowledge in a years time, the FCAT was set in place. This FCAT tests students till the tenth grade. The results of this test is then used to make sure the student is not left behind. The education is then centered around the individual needs of each student. Although this is not the only reason for the FCAT test. The test also shows if the school is performing to standards. Schools are assigned a performance grade based on the student achievement from the FCAT. If the school receives a failing grade, then resources are put into effect. The school receives addition money assistance, along with salary incentives for the teachers in those schools. I personally do not see the reason to award a failing school or a teachers of that school. But I guess I stand corrected, due to the fact the program seems to be working for the most part. I believe there are some problems with this plan. I believe that the children that exceed the standards are left behind. When my daughter entered the sixth grade she was ready for Algebra 1. The school felt that only eight graders should take algebra 1. Their reasoning was that in the seventh and eighth grade they would not have a math for her to complete. Due to this reasoning, I feel, they decided to leave my child behind. My daughter was taken out of the public school and placed in a private school. In the private school she was able to exceed at her learning capabilities. Today she is attending CFCC as a full time student. This is her second semester. She carries thirteen credits this semester, with a 4.0 grade average. My daughter is thirteen years old. She shall receive her A.A. degree by the time she is fourteen. I believe if she had been left in the public school, she would of been held back from her abilities.

Animal Intelligence Essay -- Papers

Animal Intelligence Intelligence is defined as the ability to acquire and apply knowledge. Psychologists have exploited this concept in many ways to try and determine whether non-human animals are capable of intelligence. From social learning it is logical to assume that, since non-human animals are able to both acquire and use new behaviours, they must be intelligent in some way. Heyes stated that there are 6 types of behaviour which suggest intelligence. These are imitation, self-recognition, social relationship formation, role-taking, deception and perspective taking. These 6 behaviours are referred to as the theory of mind (ToM). Imitation is the ability to copy another's behaviour, this may be because the behaviour is adaptive. Kawai (1965) studied Japanese macaques and found that due to one monkey's actions (Imo), a large amount of the macaque population acquired a useful behaviour in a 5-year period. Kawai reported that Imo would wash her sweet potatoes before consumption, later other macaque monkeys showed the same behaviour. Kawai thus suggested that the rest of the monkeys had imitated Imo's behaviour. Galef suggested that this behaviour was due to social learning. Given the time period, of 5 years, it is possible that other monkeys had learned this potato washing behaviour by themselves instead of imitating Imo. The observers in this experiment provided the sweet potatoes, and would pay more attention to the monkeys that washed the potatoes. This attention would be a reinforcer of the behaviour causing other monkeys to copy it. Although there is not enough supportive evidence for imitation, some behaviours ca... ...ceive the trainer in white and pay attention to instructions given by the trainer in green. The chimpanzee successfully got the food most of the time. This supports the idea that non-human animals are capable of deceit. The characteristics of this behaviour are very like a conditioned behaviour. It is nearly impossible to say whether non-human animals are intelligent. Most studies, in this field of psychology, were carried out on primates, and it is thought that these animals are naturally superior. It seems most behaviour in the research discussed in this essay can be explained through association learning, therefore not actually a result of intelligence. It is difficult to falsify whether animals are intelligent or not because, although they are able to solve problems they only show some aspects to suggest ToM.

Power of Literature

How the Power of Literature Has Affected My Life – Value of Literature Alex Sidorov English 101 Alex Sidorov Thompson English 101 May 27, 2009 How the Power of Literature Has Affected My Life – Value of Literature If you asked me how much I valued literature a few months ago, I would have probably laughed it off and proclaimed it has no value because it does not affect me. What kind of value could literature possibly have? It is just books. Random characters dealing with their random problems. What could that possibly offer me except giving me something to kill time? It was not until I began researching about the value of literature that I realized its vital contributions to my life and the lives of everyone around me. I found out no matter how often (or not so often) that you read, literature can and will still affect you in a way nothing else can. The value of literature to me can not only be found in what I have learned from reading, but how it has influenced my life. In this essay, I am going to talk about how literature has affected me, and in a small way determined who I am today, and how it has affected my views on certain subjects. Various types of literature have taught me many interesting things about the world, cultures, and most importantly, myself. In addition, I will describe my history as a reader and my plan for reading in the future. Literature has somewhat sculpted me into the person I am today. I believe that children are very easily influenced, and as a child, I was exposed to literature almost every night. I began to read Goosebumps books when I was only five years old. I think that habit has affected my personality because literature is about connecting with the characters on a more-than-personal level, and I feel like I can do that now to my friends better than most people can. I have a great sense of empathy that keeps me from doing anything to anyone that I would not like do to myself. An English teacher named Tim Gillespie, who has studied the value of literature and written many articles about it, concludes: By its truthful portrayal of life's complex moral choices, literature draws us in, submerges us into a story, and summons our imaginative power to identify with characters. Literature thus might be one antidote to the disease of disconnection that afflicts us. Assaulting someone, tagging a wall with spray paint, sexually harassing another, or yelling a racial slur all show incapacity to empathize, to imagine another's deepest responses, to consider the real consequences of actions on others. In the fractious world we inhabit, empathy is a much-needed skill, and literature is a form in which we can practice this skill (Gillespie 61). Assuming this is true, I attribute my empathy to my childhood reading. And who knows what other characteristics and changes to my personality reading has brought me. This is an aspect of reading I think is extremely under rated, and I think it should be more publicly known. When I think about it, there must be a link between empathy and reading at a young age, as my friends who seem to completely lack empathy don't read at all and don't have the strong family values that would support reading, especially at a young age. Empathy is one of the most valuable things literature can offer its readers. Bill Clinton once said that children could not be expected to live a life they cannot imagine. Moreover, there is no better way to expand one's imagination than with reading. The books I enjoy reading involve the protagonist embarking on a long and unlikely journey, which would be impossible for me to experience for myself in real life. However, I feel like by reading about this adventure, in a sense I am experiencing it for myself. There's something about reading that makes it so involving, unlike movies or television where I can become distracted and miss parts of it. Reading requires all of my senses to be focused on the literature, which I believe helps expand my imagination. An article in the magazine World & I states: â€Å"The study of great literature nurtures the learner's imaginative power†¦ and this imaginative power restores us to our real selves†¦ and enriches an inner self. Great literature helps revive what is most precious in our souls† (â€Å"The Enduring Value†). Literature is the key for a healthy imagination. Although literature has, some â€Å"hidden† powers like expanding your imagination and promoting empathy, it serves another obvious purpose, to teach. Literature, fiction or non-fiction, usually has something to offer. A great example of this is A Complicated Kindness. Before reading this novel, I believed the typical stereotype of Mennonites: boring, religious people who shun themselves from the outside world because for some reason, they think their way of life is better than ours. This book taught me how wrong I was. I learned that many of the Mennonite teenagers go through the same troubles and experiences many average Canadian teens go through. I discovered the author grew up as a Mennonite in Manitoba, and although it is by no means a factual memoir, I am still confident, much of the information about the culture and the people's behavior is accurate. Reading the book was much more enjoyable than I had anticipated because I was learning about a new culture and I could in some ways, relate to Nomi, at least much more than I thought I would. Literature was able to teach me about the behind-the-scenes Mennonite lifestyle that I don't think I could learn about anywhere else. In an essay by Cynthia Ozick, she states that â€Å"the pulse and purpose of literature is to reject the blur of the â€Å"universal†; to distinguish one life from another; to illumine diversity; to light up the least grain of being, to show how it is concretely individual, in particularized from any other; to tell, in all the marvel of its singularity, the separate holiness of the least grain. Literature is the recognition of the particular† (Ozick 248). This is saying that literature can help you learn by showing you the hardships and experiences of one person: usually the protagonist. This is especially true with Nomi. Instead of seeing a news special about Mennonite villages helping out by building houses for one another and then living happily ever after, we â€Å"reject the blur of the universal† and â€Å"light up the least grain of being†: Nomi. It was not until grade four or five that I found out how much you can learn from a piece of fiction. I read a book called Under a War Torn, which was the by far the longest book I had read up to that point. It was about a oldier named Henry Forester who found himself behind enemy lines in the World War II. Henry travels through France on a journey to return home, and through the process, I was exposed to all sorts of information about the war. Blitzkriegs, battles, attitudes, and tragedies were some of the important things I learned about which still stick with me today. Even during history class in tenth grade, many of the facts that were taught from the textbook I had already learned through literature . Only this is a special kind of literature called â€Å"historical literature. Patricia Crawford, a professor in the Instruction and Learning department of the University of Pittsburgh, writes about how â€Å"Scholars and practitioners in the field recognize the importance of learning history in ways that actively engage students in their learning. The inclusion of high-quality literature in general and historical fiction in particular, within the social studies curriculum provides a powerful means of facilitating this type of engagement â€Å"(Crawford). I can personally say through my own experiences that historical fiction is an extremely valuable tool that should be included in history curriculums. I do not enjoy reading fact-heavy textbooks, and would much rather read a story that incorporates the information into the plot. This way I will be more absorbed by the writing, and it is more likely I will retain the information. That is why historical literature is so valuable to me. A few years ago, I read a book called The Secret. It had been featured on Oprah and claimed to posses an ancient secret. The secret is that if you wish for something†¦ anything, you will somehow get it. To prove this it uses testimonies and interprets the Laws of Attraction. It went as far as to say â€Å"What you think and what you feel and what actually manifests is ALWAYS a match – no exception† (Byrne 23). If you wish for a shiny new red bicycle, you will be rewarded with one. After hearing about so many people having success with this â€Å"secret†, even though it made no sense scientifically, I decided to read it. In addition, the strange thing is, the more I read into it, the more believable it was. I began trying it out, and sure enough, sometimes it did seem to work. However, deep down I knew it had to be a coincidence. Therefore, I researched it on the internet and realized how completely bogus it was. I realized that only literature has the power to make you believe the impossible. In addition, in a sense, it made the impossible true. I have seen countless interviews with people who swear by it with real stories about how it worked, yet, it is impossible, and I think deep down everybody knows that. This just goes to show the power of literature. I consider myself to have a very high level of common sense, so the fact that I even googled it baffles me. There are many other texts out there that have influenced me along with millions of others, one being The Da Vinci Code. That work of fiction brought down a wave of suspicion based on the Christian religion just because it was written as if it was a true story, and it used real locations and real historical evidence. This just goes to show that literature can influence people's beliefs beyond what should be possible. I feel that literature can help improve my life because it makes me a better learner. Reading and literature force you to make connections and relate things to and to always be thinking, which are skills that allow me to learn things easier. Author Bruce Meyer wrote in one of his books The Golden Thread: A Reader's Through the Great Books: â€Å"Here's the simple truth: nothing prepares us better for reading than reading. Reading is a process not just of assimilating ideas but of learning the skills, the fundamental structures, and the repeated story line that make further reading a richer, more enjoyable and much more powerful experience† (Meyer 4). I feel like the more I read, the easier it is to read and the more inclined I am to read more. During high school, I will admit I fell into a reading slump. I barely read. I was far too busy with football, wrestling, homework, work, and other distractions to be bothered to pick up a book. For the most part, the only books I have read have been in the four English classes I have taken. This may even be what turned me off reading†¦ many of the books I have read in high school are more geared towards girls. The main character is usually a girl, and the conflicts and problems in the book usually do not interest me. However, no matter how busy I am, I think I will always be able to make time for reading. So what is the value of literature to me? I do not think I can put a value on something that helped shape me into the good person I am today. Something that expands my imagination and helps me learn. Something that teaches me about different cultures, and times then those that I'm already familiar with. Something that can influence and persuade me to do great things. Literature is far too powerful to put any value on. And that's why I'll continue to read throughout my life; so I can continue to benefit from all of literature's power. Works Cited Byrne, Rhonda. The Secret. New York: Atria Books/Beyond Words, 2006. Crawford, Patricia A. , and Vicky Zygouris-Coe. â€Å"Those were the days: learning about history through literature. † Childhood Education 84. 4 (Summer 2008): 197(7). Academic OneFile. Gale. Guelph Public Library. 8 Nov. 2008 â€Å"The Enduring Value of Literature. † World & I 11. 5 (May 1996): 282 Gillespie, Tim. â€Å"Why literature matters. † Education Digest 61. 1 (Sep. 1995): 61. Meyer, Bruce. The Golden Thread: A Reader's Through the Great Books. Toronto: HarperCollins Publishers Ltd, 2000. Ozick, Cynthia. Art & Arder. New York: Random House, 1983.

English 2 – Literary Response

My Singular Irene Literature is, by my understanding, a means to critic society and individuals or the way the world is behaving. Writers of Literature write literature to provide a new way of seeing things that might be different from our point of view. In other words, writers use tools of literature story like: symbolism, point of view to help them is making the literature story to be more exciting and clear to us, the reader. The author helps us to see the frailty or other bad deeds and good things about this life in this world as we seldom see those things with our own eyes. A Very Old Man With Enormous Wings and My Singular Irene is a very good example for this literature reading, because it is very rich in literature concept and devices, like: symbolism or point of view. The main character in this story is said to be alienated, repressed and silenced in the story. I will prove this statement by retelling the main point on the story that supports this statement. A very old man refers to an old angel that is cast ashore into earth because of inability to keep up with the heavy rain. e can see that the angel is alienated from examples that shown this statement, such as : †They found the whole neighborhood in front of the chicken coop having fun with the angel, without the slightest reference, tossing him things to eat through the openings in the wire as if he weren’t a supernatural creature but a circus animal. †(Gabriel Garcia Marquez 36). the angel is alienated because It is treated differently from the others. The others are having f un with the angel rather than socializing with the angel. The angel is also repressed and silenced. There is a quotation that shows this statement: â€Å"Pelayo watch over him all afternoon from the kitchen, armed with his Bailiff’s club, and before going to bed he dragged him out of the mud and locked him up with the hens in the wire chicken coop. †(Gabriel Garcia- Marquez 36). From this statement, we can derive that the angel is â€Å"caged† from it’s freedom and its freedom is repressed by the caged that Pelayo given it, thus the angel is silenced from the freedom. My Singular Irene is also a good example for this literature reading. Irene is reputed to be alienated is true in this story. Irene is treated differently from other people. From the story we know that Ilene’s husband( the first person view in the story) isolated Irene from the outside world by buying Irene very expensive â€Å"stuff† to lure Irene to stay in the house isolated from the outside world. Irene is also axiomatic to be repressed and silenced. We know from the story that Irene is considered as a â€Å"thing† to her husband, because her husband wants Irene to act like he wants. So, in order to satisfy his ego, Irene is inhibited and muted by many ways, like: not allowing Irene to go to the outside world, forbidding visitors to meet Irene. Irene too, like the Angel is constrained from freedom. A Very Old Man With Enormous Wings and My Singular Irene are an example of story that has a symbol of contemporary alienation and triumph over it. First, I am going to express about A Very Old Man With Enormous Wings. The angel in the story is alienated or make indifferent. It is derived from the behavior of the people that found the angel. It is treated like mere goods than divine figure. So, it is true that it is a contemporary alienation. Later in the story, we know that the angel has his most precious tool that can bring him back to his divine status. That tool is its wings, when its wings grows back, he immediately leaped up to the sky and clapped its wings and fly to the horizon of freedom. The angel is reputed to be a triumph over alienation. Second, My Singular Irene is also a symbol of alienation. Irene is also made hostile like the angel. She is isolated or â€Å"caged† by her husband; there is an interesting point in this story in my point of view. To me, Irene seemed to be speechless or not a living thing. The author writes the story in such a way that us, readers, grabs the alienation theme in the story. Irene is also considered as a triumph over alienation. There is a quotation from the story: Horrifying! Irene changed into a horrendous butterfly! I stood up and fell again, powerless now. She would leave me; she would take flight and leave me. The gigantic Irene Butterfly smiled at me, diminished, and disappeared with the others. I am at the site of the events, waiting for Irene’s return. She has no return. She cannot deny me the peace that her company always offered me. (AlmAnzar, JosE AlcAntara 45) From this quotation, I interpret it that Irene’s freedom does also mean she has a higher status in the relationship with her husband now. What I meant by higher status of relationship is the one that always try to get the relationship going is the one that has a lower status, in this case, her husband. Irene’s triumph over alienation is expressed by the author of Irene transformation into the most beautiful butterfly that can fly anywhere it wants. It is very interesting that these two stories have a similar thing. They both define freedom by flying leaving the thing that binds their way to freedom. The following paragraph below tells a story about human needs for personal freedom and community. There is certainly no argument in this world that can be used to defy human needs for socializing and personal freedom. Human always seek out a way to grab that freedom. Kingdom falls, kingdom rises, Leader of a faction dies, and assassin was born. All of these examples are made because of the need to obtain and maintain personal freedom and the ability to communicate freely with communities of choice. There is an interesting story below those talks about human’s desire for personal liberty. This story is about the struggle of African-American communities in the United States to obtain their right of personal freedom and human needs for sociality. United States also known as the land of the free and the brave has been well known for its freedom. It has a lot to offer, such as: the freedom of speech, the right to work, etc. But, in contrast to all of those things, there is a little dispute inside this great country in the era of slavery. African American is the target for this matter. African American arrived in the United States as Indentured Servants via Jamestown, Virginia in 1619. They could earn their so called â€Å"personal freedom† by working as slave to their chosen master. As time goes by, the other majority in the United States made a conduct for slaves called â€Å"Slaves Codes†. This Slave Codes constrained African American in the Unites States from their liberty. They did fight for it until the Majority pushes another harsh rule for any slaves that disobey its masters. From this point, we can see human’s needs for personal freedom. Human fights for freedom risking everything they had, like: their lives, treasure, relatives. There is also a story of a president that fight for part of his citizen’s needs for personal freedom, his name was Abraham Lincoln. He was a farmer boy that born Feb. 12, 1809, in Hardin County, Kentucky. His parents were both born in Virginia. Abraham was well known for his strength and cleverness in farming skills. In not so long time he began to be very famous in the community because of his skills in socializing. Not so long after that, he became the president of the United States. He saw this great calamity of slavery and intends to abolish this calamity for good. To pursue this personal freedom, Abraham had gone through a lot of obstacles from his own family until his own citizen in the south. Alas, not so long a civil war broke out between the north and the south. But, the good always wins; Abraham with the North wins the Civil War by diplomacy. And thus the period of reconstruction began. Unfortunately Abraham was killed by an assassin in April 14, 1865; Lincoln was killed at Ford's Theatre in Washington by John Wilkes Booth. This story has greatly described to us the importance of human need for community and personal freedom. In conclusion, these two stories, My Singular Irene and A Very Old Man With Enormous Wings, tell us about the importance of personal freedom and need of interaction with other people. They also told us, no matter how hard human is pushed to abandoned their personal freedom; human always emerges to fight their way to obtain freedom even though they have to put their lives on the line to achieve their goal, personal freedom.